Adolescent Psychology Chapter 1

Early History

• Fourth Century BC (Ancient Greece—Rome)

  • Adolescence was to bridge to maturity

  • Hallmarks: indpendence, choice, identity

  • Egocentric - the belief that the world evolves over ME.

• Middle ages

  • Adolescence = Mini Me’s

  • Harsh in treatment

  • Forced into maturity

20th and 21st centuries

• invention of adolescence as a formal period of development

• passive and vulerable period of human development

• drew attention from psychologists, educators, doctors, etc.

G. Stanely Hall’s Storm and Stress view

• development is controlled primarily by biological factors.

• Adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings.

• the beginning of the scientific study of adolescence is due to Hall.

Margaret Mead’s Sociocultural view of Adolescence

• the basic nature of adolescence is not biological but rather sociocultural

• in cultures that provide a smooth, gradual transition from childhood to adulthood, she found little storm and stress.

• Criticisms over biased and error-prone findings cause this to be a controversial view.

The inventionist view

• Adolescence is a sociohistorical creation

• schools, work, and economics are important dimensions.

• Some scholars argue that the concept of adolescence was invented mainly as a by-product of the movement to create a system of compulsory public education

1950s-1970s

• WIld and whacky times

• Vietnam, Structural racism, duality of family and life, college, feminism, etc.

Stereotypes

• Generalization

• Can be positive or negative

• typically based on personal experience and socialization

• only problematic if we are unaware and they influence our behavior intentionally or otherwise (discrimination)

Generalizations

That reflect our impressions and beliefs about broad categories of people

Breaking free

• The negative stereotypes adolescents face are typically far more critical/negative than actually

• despite this — most adolescents across cultures tend to have positive views of themselves and are optimistic about their futures

Positive Psychology based approach to adolescent development

Focuses on the five C’s

• Competence

• confidence

• connection

• character

• caring/compassion

Three core aspects of development

• Biological processes

• Cognitive processes

• Socioemotional processes

Biological Processes

Changes to an individual’s body

Cognitive processes

changes to an individual’s brain

Socioemotional processes

changes to a individual’s emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Science, Science, Science

• At the center of how we study adolescence is the scientific method

• this method allows researchers to unbiasedly approach meaningful questions about and problems that exist in adolescence

• intent is to create theories, methodologies, and frameowrk that allows us to better understand the complexities of human life.

• There are few if any causal relationships (X caused Y), rather factors that help explain or contribute to a phenomenon

Primary resources

are works completed directly by the authors and often involve firsthand data collection/testing. Ex. Journal articles (non-literature reviews), Work of Art, Laws, etc.

Secondary resources

are works completed by a secondary or further removed author and often involve summaries or opinion pieces based on other resources. Ex. Your text book, credible websites .edu, .gov, etc. NOT wikipedia.

• Credible secondary resources will often have a list of the resources they use included at the bottom or somewhere on the webpage or article.

Puberty

A brain—neuroendocrine process occuring primarily in early adolescnece that provides stimulation for the rapid phsycial changes that take place during this period of development.

Puberty is often associated with

Adolescence but typically ends long before adolescence does.

There is no single factor that initiatives or drives puberty—

rather a complex web of factors that span biological, cognitive, social, environmental, and psychological domains.

Drivers—start your engines

Biology and genetics —> Puberty

Hormones

Powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout the body by the bloodstream

Androgens

The main class of male sex hormones

• Testosterone

Testosterone

is an androgen that plays an important role in male pubertal development.

Estrogens

The main class of female sex hormones

• Estradiol

Estradiol

is an estrogen that plays an important role in female pubertal development.

Testosterone cont.

• Development of external genitals.

• increase in height

• voice changes

• also linked to sexual desire and activity

Estradiol

• Breast development

• uterine development

• skeletal changes

• link to sexual desire and activity less clear

Stereotypes

• Typically developed from personal experience

• associations we make about large groups of people — protective information processing

• an issue when they influence behavior (discrimination)

• Antidote? There isn’t one — we are primed for them — awareness

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis

• Vital system of organs and structures in the body responsible for the rapid growth that takes place during puberty.

• This power triad helps regulate horomones and communicate with key players in the puberty process.

• They influence growth, sexual development, adrenaline levels, and can even influence adolescent behavior and impulses.

Hypothalamus

• Acts as the body’s control center for regulating all things including hormone secretion and production

• Aim to keep the body in homeostasis (stability). By secreting Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormones (GnHR)

• Has direct links to teh autonomic nervous system which control things like heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.

• Similarly, it helps with basic instincutal and survival needs like sleep, hunger, and thirst.

Pituitary Gland

• The body’s endocrine conductor of the hormonal symphony.

• Manages growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress responses, water balance, etc.

• Secretes follicle-stimulating (FSH) and luteinizing hormones (LH).

  • LH important for estrogen and ovum development in females—testosterone in males.

Gonads

• Gonads are the primary reproductive organs related to each biological sex that produce sex cells and secrete sex hormones.

• Control sexual development and secondary sexual traits.

• Testicles (males)—Ovaries (females)

• Endocrine receiver (hypothalamus and pituitary gland) send signals that stumulate sex hormone secretion and sperm/egg production.

Hypothalamus

A structure in the brain that interacts with the pituitary gland to monitor the bodily regulation of hormones.

Pituitary

The master gland produces hormones that stimulate other glands. It also influences growth by producing growth hormones; it sends gonadotopins to the testes and ovaries and a thyroid-stimulating hormone to the thyroid gland. It send a hormone to the adrenal gland as well.

Thyroid gland

It interacts with the pituitary gland to influence growth.

Adrenal gland

It interacts with the pituitary gland and

likely plays a role in pubertal development, but less is known

about its function than about sex glands. Recent research,

however, suggests it may be involved in adolescent behavior,

particularly for boys.

The gonads, or sex glands

These consist of the testes in males and the ovaries in females. The sex glands are strongly involved in the appearance of secondary sex characteristics,

such as facial hair in males and breast development in females.

The general class of hormones called estrogens is dominant in

females, while androgens are dominant in males. More

specifically, testosterone in males and estradiol in females are

key hormones in pubertal development.

Regulating hormones

• based on a negative feedback system

• Typicaly seen as in GO mode with a safety “off” switch during puberty.

Adrenarche

Pre-early puberty phase involving hormonal changes in the adrenal glands

• getting gas before a road trip.

• 6-9 for girls

• 7-10 for boys

Adrenal gland produces

adrenal androgens

pre-cursors cause

physical change like underarm/pubic hair, oily skin and acne, body odor, growth spurts

Gonadarche

Puberty phase involving the maturation of primary and secondary sexual characters.

• Ready set go!—true start of puberty?

• 9-10 for girls (varies by culture)

• 10-11 years for boys

Primary sexual characteristics

ovaries and testes

secondary sexual characteristics

pubic hair, breast/genital development, facial hair, widening of the hips (female), increased body fat, deepening voice (male), etc.

Growth spurts (explain the graph)

Growth slows throughout childhood, and then puberty brings forth the most rapid increases in growth since infancy.

• This growth spurt occurs approximately 2 years earlier for girls (age 9) than boys (age 11) on average.

• The peak of pubertal change occurs at 11½ years for girls and 13½ years for boys.

• Girls increase in height by about 3½ inches per year; boys, by about 4 inches.

Reduce health-compromising behavior

Drug abuse, violence, unprotected sexual intercourse, and dangerous driving.

Increase health-enhancing behaviors

exercising, eating nutritiously, wearing seat belts, and getting adequate sleep.

There are hundreds of environmental factors that impact adolescent health and development.

• Social

  • Teachers, role models, parents, siblings, family, healthcare providers, mental health providers, coaches, administrators, etc.

• Environmental

  • Homelessness, access to food, clothing, resources, exposure to pollution, medications, etc.

Adolescent health is much more complicated that getting adequate sleep, nutrition, and exercise.

However, we know that these are the core health inducing behaviors that have buffering effects on the negative outcomes of exposure to other things.

Natural selection

the evolutionary process that favors those individuals of a species who are best adapted to survive and reproduce

Charles Darwin (natural selection)

Over the course of many generations, organisms with the characteristics needed for survival would compose a larger and larger percentage of the population, producing a gradual modification of the species.

adaptive behavior

a modification of behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat

• All organisms must adapt to particular places, climates, food sources, and ways of life in order to survive.

Evolutionary psychology

emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” in explaining behavior.

• one brance of psychology—determines a human behavior driven by survival needs

• Sophistication in behavior is an adaptive response to the complexities of society—i need to change my behavior to get what i want/need to survive

• Adolescence has extended over time in response to complex body and brain development

Albert Bandura (1998)

has criticized the “biologizing” of psychology. Social Psychologist)

• He rejects what he calls “one-sided evolutionism.”

• Evolution gave humans body structures and biological potentialities, not behavioral dictates.

Natural selection leading

to human traits and behaviors is difficult to refute or test because it occurs on a time scale that does not lend itself to empirical study.

The nucleus of each human cell contains chromosomes, the

threadlike structures that contain deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

• DNA: a complex molecule that contains genetic information.

• Genes, the units of hereditary information, which are short segments composed of DNA.

• They direct cells to reproduce themselves and to assemble proteins.

Humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 genes.

• Humans appear to have far more proteins than they have genes, so there cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between them

DNA

a complex molecule that contains genetic information.

Genes

the units of hereditary information, which are short segments composed of DNA.

• They direct cells to reproduce themselves and to assemble proteins.

Rather than being an independent source of information, DNA

collaborates with other sources of information to specify our

characteristics.

• Numerous studies have shown that external events outside the cell and the person, and internal events inside the cell, can excite or inhibit gene expression.

• Stress, exercise, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, smoking, and sleep can influence gene expression.

A single gene is

rarely the source of a protein’s genetic information, much less the source of a person’s inherited trait.

Rather than being a group of independent genes,

the human genome consists of many collaborative genes

The term gene–gene interaction is

increasingly used to describe studies that

focus on the interdependence of two or more genes in influencing

characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development.

Genotype

A person’s genetic heritage—the actual genetic material—

Phenotype

the way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and

measurable characteristics.

• Phenotypes include physical traits and psychological characteristics.

For each genotype, a range of phenotypes can be expressed

behavior genetics

The field that seeks to discover the influence of herefity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development.

• Idea is that our genes influence us to act in certain ways as a result of the historically programmed aspects of our dna.

• in this way genes control or manipulate our responses to the environment around us.

Twin studies/adoption studies

Most common ways researchers approach hereditary-environmental interactions.

Epigenetic view

emphasizes that development is the result of an

ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the

environment.

The epigenetic mechanisms

involve the actual molecular modification of the DNA strand because of environmental inputs in ways that alter gene functioning.

• Example: Adolescents who experienced negative life events

drank heavily only when they had a particular variation of the

CRHR1 gene.

• This type of research is referred to as gene × environment

(G × E) interaction

Epigenetics

Heredity-environment correlation view

• heredity—>environment

Epigenetic view

• heredity←→ environment

Passive (heredity environment correlation)

Children inherit genetic tendencies from

their parents, and parents also provide an

environment that matches their own genetic

tendencies.

Example: Musically inclined parents usually have

musically inclined children and they are likely

to provide an environment rich in music for

their children.

Evocative (heredity-environment correlation)

The child’s genetic tendencies elicit

stimulation from the environment that

supports a particular trait. Thus, genes

evoke environmental support.

Example: A happy, outgoing child elicits smiles and

friendly responses from others.

Active (niche-picking) (heredity environment correlation)

Children actively seek out “niches” in their

environment that reflect their own interests

and talents and are thus in accord with their

genotype.

Example: Libraries, sports fields, and a store with

musical instruments are examples of

environmental niches children might seek

out if they have intellectual interests in

books, talent in sports, or musical talents,

respectively.

Which of the following marks beginnings of adolescence?

puberty

puberty takes place between about blank and blank yeras of age of most individuals.

Nine and 16

Sasha is aware that in the past few months her hips have become wider and her breasts have started to increase in size. These changes are due to

hormones

Both males and females produces androgens and estrogens.

true

Throughout puberty, rising testosterone levels in boys are associated with which of the following?

• an increase in height

• development of external genitals

• voice changes

_____ is a brain-neuroendocrine process occuring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that accompany this period of development.

puberty

through interaction with the hypothalamus, the ___ gland detects when the optimal levell of hormones has been reached and maintains it with additional gonadotrophin secretions.

pituitary

scientists have started to conduct _____ studies to pinpoint specific genes assoicated with the onset and development of puberty.

molecular genetic

hormones are carried throughout the body by the _______

bloodstream/blood

In females, LH and GnRH regulate the _____ and the production of ______.

ovaries; estrogen

_____ are the main type of male hormones.

androgens

Testosterone is primarily secreted from the _______ in boys.

testes

the thyroid gland releases gonadotropins that stimuate the testes and ovaries.

false

The ______ is a structure in the higher portion of the brain that monitors eating, drinking, and sex.

hypothalamus

In girls, changes in the adrenal glands occur from about _____ to _____ years of age.

6;9

If the level of sex hormones rises too high, the ______ and pituitary gland reduce their stimulation of the gonads, decreasing the production of sex hormones.

hypothalamus

Gonadarche involves:

• the appearance of pubic hair

• the maturation of testes in males

• breast development

• the maturation of ovaries in females

a girl’s first menstrual period is also known as ________

menarche

Kevin just experienced spermarche. In other words, Kevin

had his first ejaculation of semen.

On average, adrenarche occurs __________

about one year later in boys than girls.

In males, the pituitary gland’s production of ________ stimulates the testes to produce testosterone.

LH

______ is a protein produced by fat cells and plays a critical role in regulation of hunger and appetite.

leptin

Janessa is a black girl. According to findings on ethnic differences in the United States, at what age is Janessa likely to enter the gonadarche period?

8 to 9 years of age

The growth spurt associated with puberty occurs, on average, _____ years earlier for girls than for boys.

2

Menarche occurs to mid- to late gonadarche in girls.

true

The growth spurt for boys begin ______ it does for girls.

later and ends later than

Place the following male pubertal characteristics in order in which they emerge.

1. Increased penis and testicle size

2. Appearance of straight pubic hair

3. Minor voice change

4. first ejaculation

5. appearance of kinky pubic hair

6. onset of maximum growth