College U.S. History Final

Yalta Conference

1945 Meeting with US president FDR, British Prime Minister(PM) Winston Churchill, and and Soviet Leader Stalin during WWII to plan for post-war. They decided to split Germany into four zones occupied by controlled by U.S., British, French and Soviet military. Berlin, the capital, was also split into these four zones. The United Nations was also formed to prevent WWIII from happening

Cold War

A forty-five-year-long diplomatic tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that divided much of the world into polarized camps, capitalist against communist. Most of the international conflicts during that period, particularly in the developing world, can be traced to the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. The nations never directly confronted each other on the battlefield but deadly threats went on for years.

United Nations

International body formed in 1945 to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of preventing further world wars. Much like the former League of Nations in ambition, the U.N. was more realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five powers in keeping peace in the world. Thus, it guaranteed veto power to all permanent members of its Security Council—Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States.

Nuremburg War Trials

Highly publicized proceedings against former Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity in postwar Germany. As a result of the trials, the top 21 Nazi officials were found guilty and executed.

Berlin Airlift

1948 joint effort by the US and Britian to fly food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviet blocked off all ground routes into the city. For 11 months starting in June 1948, the Western allies took part in an unprecedented attempt to keep a city alive- entirely from the air, Despite Soviet harassment, the air crews performed what many thought was impossible. 277,000 flights, 2.3 million tons of supplies.

Containment doctrine (1947)

A foreign policy strategy advocated by George Kennan that called for the United States to isolate the Soviet Union, "contain" its advances, and resist its encroachments by peaceful means if possible, but by force if necessary.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

President Truman’s universal pledge of support for any people fighting any communist or communist-inspired threat. Truman presented the doctrine to Congress in 1947 in support of his request for $400 million to defend Greece and Turkey against Soviet-backed insurgencies.

Marshall Plan

Massive transfer of aid money; $12.5 billion to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to strengthen capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power. The plan was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall at Harvard’s commencement in June 1947.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Military alliance of Western European powers and the United States and Canada established in 1949 to defend against the common threat from the Soviet Union, marking a giant stride forward for European unity and American internationalism. These countries were to defend each other if Soviet Union tries to invade.

Warsaw Pact

Soviet Union and its neighboring countries were formed into an alliance because they thought NATO was going to attack, not defend from Soviets.

Why was the Cold War in a standoff between NATO and Warsaw Pact?

Both alliances thought the other side was going to attack, but they were both defending

NSC Memorandum #68

National Security Council recommendation to quadruple defense spending and rapidly expand peacetime armed forces to address Cold War tensions. It reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy, but the huge costs of rearmament were not expected to interfere with what seemed like the limitless possibilities of postwar prosperity.

Korean War

U.S. made an agreement with USSR to help bring Japan troops outside of Korea- so they split it in half. U.S. made their half democratic government, and USSR made their half communist government. Soviets armed North Korea with guns to free their brothers and sisters from the “oppressive Americans”, but South Korea didn’t have anything to be freed from because they liked how their government was. Kim Il-Sung was North Korea, Syngman Rhee was leader of South Korea

Leaders of North Korea in order:

o   Kim Il-Sung (1948-1991)

o   Kim Jong-Il (1991-2011)

o   Kim Jong-Um (2011-Present)

**House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)**

Investigatory body established in 1938 to root out “subversion.” Sought to expose communist influence in American government and society, in particular through the trial of Alger Hiss.

McCarthyism

A brand of vitriolic, fear-mongering anti-communism associated with the career of Senator Joseph McCarthy. In the early 1950s, Senator McCarthy used his position in Congress to baselessly accuse high-ranking government officials and other Americans of conspiracy with communism. The term named after him refers to the dangerous forces of unfairness and fear wrought by anticommunist paranoia.

Army-McCarthy hearings

Congressional hearings called by Senator Joseph McCarthy to accuse members of the army of communist ties. In this widely televised spectacle, McCarthy finally went too far for public approval. The hearings exposed the senator’s extremism and led to his eventual disgrace.

Hungarian uprising

Series of demonstrations in Hungary against the Soviet Union and communist rule in 1956. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev violently suppressed this pro-Western uprising, highlighting the limitations of America’s power in Eastern Europe. USSR invades Hungary with troops after they rebel against the Soviet backed government. 30,000 Hungarians were killed and the United States could not help because of the threat of nuclear war.

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

Military engagement in French colonial Vietnam in which French forces were defeated by Viet Minh nationalists loyal to Ho Chi Minh. With this loss, the French ended their colonial involvement in Indochina, paving the way for America’s entry.

Suez Crisis

Israel attacks Egypt to get Suez canal back for the British and French. Russia aids Egypt, US aids Israel, we now have a nuclear standoff. The Iran the U.S. helps overthrow the government with the help of the Iranian Shah M. Pahlavi. (This leads to the current hatred between Iran and the U.S.). The U.S. becomes involved in anti-communist revolutions in Vietnam and Guatemala. The Suez crisis marked an important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East and highlighted the rising importance of oil in world affairs.

**Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)**

Cartel comprising Middle Eastern states and Venezuela first organized in 1960. OPEC aimed to control access to and prices of oil, wresting power from Western oil companies and investors. In the process, it gradually strengthened the hand of non-Western powers on the world stage.

Sputnik I

The first launched satellite into earth orbit on October 4, 1957 by Soviets. This scientific achievement marked the first time human beings had put a man-made object into orbit and pushed the USSR noticeably ahead of the United States in the space race. A month later, the Soviet Union sent a larger satellite, Sputnik II, into space, prompting the United States to redouble its space exploration efforts and raising American fears of Soviet superiority.

Kitchen debate

Televised exchange in 1959 between Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and American vice president Richard Nixon. Meeting at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, the two leaders sparred over the relative merits of capitalist consumer culture versus Soviet state planning. Nixon won applause for his staunch defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican nomination for president in 1960.

Military-industrial complex

Term popularized by President Dwight Eisenhower in his 1961 Farewell Address, referring to the political and economic ties between arms manufacturers, elected officials, and the U.S. armed forces that created self-sustaining pressure for high military spending during the Cold War. Eisenhower also warned that this powerful combination left unchecked could “endanger our liberties or democratic process,” favoring defense concerns over more peaceful goals that balanced security and liberty.

New Frontier

President Kennedy’s nickname for his domestic policy agenda. Buoyed by youthful optimism, the program included proposals for the Peace Corps and efforts to improve education and health care. It would keep the economy going and those at the bottom will better themselves. He believed slums, inadequate education and poverty could all be fixed. Lastly, Kennedy issued a national challenge for the U.S. to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade.

Peace Corps

A federal agency created by President Kennedy in 1961 to promote voluntary service by Americans in foreign countries. The Peace Corps provides labor power to help developing countries improve their infrastructure, health care, educational systems, and other aspects of their societies. Part of Kennedy’s New Frontier vision, the organization represented an effort by postwar liberals to promote American values and influence through productive exchanges across the world.

Apollo

Program of manned space flights run by America’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The project’s highest achievement was the landing of Apollo 11 on the moon on July 20, 1969.

Berlin Wall

Fortified and guarded barrier between East and West Berlin erected on orders from Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1961 to stop the flow of people to the West from the East. Until its destruction in 1989, the wall was a vivid symbol of the divide between the communist and capitalist worlds.

Bay of Pigs Invasion

CIA plot in 1961 to overthrow Fidel Castro by training Cuban exiles to invade and supporting them with American airpower. The mission failed and became a public relations disaster early in John F. Kennedy’s presidency.

Cuban missile crisis

Standoff between John F. Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev in October 1962 over Soviet plans to install nuclear weapons in Cuba. Kennedy chose to blockade Cuba and deny access to USSR. USSR and US were on brink of nuclear war for 13 days. It resulted in Russia removing their bombs from Cuba if US removed old missiles from Turkey.

Result of Cuban Missile Crisis

•Removal of Russian nuclear missiles and troops from Cuba

•U.S. removal of missiles from Turkey

•U.S. promise not to invade Cuba

•U.S. keeps its military base at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba

•The leader of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev would be removed from power

•The Soviet Union would launch a massive build up of weapons and missiles

Joseph Stalin

(1878-1953) Soviet dictator from Lenin’s death in 1922 until his own death in 1953. He led the Soviet Union through World War II and shaped Soviet policies in the early years of the Cold War. Stalin secured protective "satellite states" in Eastern Europe at the Yalta Conference and pushed Soviet scientists to develop atomic weapons, escalating an arms race with the United States.

Jiang Jieshi

(1887-1975) Leader of the Chinese Nationalists, also known as Chiang Kai-shek. He was defeated by Mao Zedong’s communist revolutionaries in 1949 and was forced to flee to the island of Taiwan, where, with the support of the United States, he became president of the Republic of China.

Mao Zedong

Leader of communist revolution in China in 1949.

George Kennan

(1904-2005) American diplomat who authored the "containment doctrine" in 1947, arguing that the Soviet Union was inherently expansionist and had to be stopped, via political and military force, from spreading throughout the world.

George Marshall

(1880-1959) Former World War II general who became secretary of state under President Harry Truman. He was the originator of the concept of the Marshall Plan to provide aid to reconstruct Western Europe in 1947.

Joseph McCarthy

(1908-1957) Senator from Wisconsin who rose to infamy by accusing the State Department of employing communists. McCarthy conducted high-profile red-baiting hearings that damaged countless careers before he finally overreached in 1954 when he went after the U.S. Army. Following the Army-McCarthy hearings, he was censured by the Senate and died of alcoholism shortly thereafter.

Harry Truman

(1884-1972) Vice president under Franklin Roosevelt in 1945, Truman assumed the office of the presidency in April of that year, when Roosevelt died from a brain hemorrhage while vacationing in Warm Springs, Georgia. Truman won another term in his own right in a historically close election in 1948 against Republican Thomas Dewey. As president, he chose to use nuclear weapons against Japan at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Dwight Eisenhower

(1890-1969) Supreme commander of U.S. forces in Europe during World War II, Eisenhower the war hero later became the thirty-fourth president of the United States. During his two terms, from 1952 to 1960, Eisenhower presided over the economically prosperous 1950s. He was praised for his dignity and decency, though criticized for not being more assertive on civil rights.

John F. Kennedy

(1917-1963) Thirty-fifth president of the United States, 1961-1963. A navy hero from World War II and son of a prominent Boston businessman, Kennedy won election to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1952. In 1960, he narrowly defeated incumbent vice president Richard Nixon in 1960 to become the youngest person ever elected president. As president, he launched New Frontier programs and urged legislation to improve civil rights. He assumed blame for the Bay of Pigs invasion and was credited for impressively handling the Cuban missile crisis. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald.

Nikita Khrushchev

(1894-1971) Premier of the Soviet Union from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was a Communist party official who emerged from the power struggle after Stalin’s death in 1953 to lead the USSR. As Soviet premier, he notably renounced Stalin’s brutality in 1956, the same year that he crushed a pro-Western uprising in Hungary. In 1958, he issued an ultimatum for Western evacuation of Berlin, from which he backed down a year later. Khrushchev defended Soviet-style economic planning in the kitchen debate with American vice president Richard Nixon in 1959, and he attempted to send missiles to Cuba in 1962 but backed down when confronted by President Kennedy during the Cuban missile crisis.

Ho Chi Minh

(1890-1969) Vietnamese revolutionary nationalist leader. Beginning in 1941, Ho organized Vietnamese opposition to foreign occupation, first against the Japanese and then, after World War II, against the French. His Viet Minh forces were victorious against French colonialists in 1954, after which Ho became the leader of North Vietnam. He led the war to unify the country in the face of increased military opposition from the United States.

Gamal Nasser

(1918-1970) President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970. Nasser was known for his pan-Arab nationalism and opposition to colonialism, specifically in his decision to nationalize the Suez Canal in 1956. Although his reputation was tarnished somewhat by his country’s military failure against Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967, he remained a popular leader in Egypt and throughout the Arab world.

Fidel Castro

(1926-) Cuban revolutionary who overthrew the Batista dictatorship in 1958 and assumed control of the island country. Castro’s connections with the Soviet Union led to a cessation of diplomatic relations with the United States and such international affairs as the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban missile crisis. A controversial figure, Castro oversaw his country through the end of the Cold War, when financial and military support from the Soviet Union dissipated, and through nearly a half-century of a trade embargo with the United States. He remained the head of Cuba’s government until his retirement in February 2008.

Lyndon B. Johnson

(1908-1973) Thirty-sixth president of the United States, 1963-1969. A Texas Democrat who rose to tremendous power in the Senate during the New Deal, Johnson was tapped to be John F. Kennedy’s running mate in 1960. Chosen largely to help solidify support for the Democratic ticket in the anti-Catholic South, he assumed the presidency after Kennedy’s assassination in 1963. As president, he was responsible for liberal programs such as the Great Society, War on Poverty, and civil rights legislation, as well as the escalation of the Vietnam War. After a series of challenges from within his party, he chose not to run for reelection in 1968.

How did the war-ravaged condition of Asia and Europe, and the dominant U.S. role in the Allied victory and postwar peace settlements, allow the United States to emerge from the war as the most powerful nation on earth? (820-824)

After the war, America had become the world's wealthiest nations with the strongest economy. To help america emerge as the most powerful nation, the US was never attacked allowing us to remain powerful. The Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences created peace settlements. These peace settlements allowed for the creation of key factors to keep america in power. The IMF was used to stabilize exchange rates, and reconstruct the payment system. The world bank was created to reduce poverty and provide loans. Lastly, the Marshall plan gave $13 billion for Europe to rebuild after the war.

How did United States policymakers engaged in a Cold War with the authoritarian Soviet Union, seek to limit the growth of Communist military power and ideological influence, create a stable global economy, and build an international security system? (822-831, 834-835)

In order to limit the spread of communism, the United States established plans and policies to heighten security. The Marshall plan gave Europe billions of dollars to rebuild post war. America gave this money to russia to keep them from succumbing to communism. The Truman Doctrine wanted to give money to Turkey and Greece to contain communism. The willingness to intervene with other countries, would not allow for the spread of communism. The Berlin Airlift is when America provided thousands of tons of supplies to those trapped in Berlin to the Berlin Wall. This demonstrated the early conflict between Soviets and Americans. Lastly, the formation of the defense treaty NATO was used to portray the message of "an attack on one is an attack on all".

How did, as postwar tensions dissolved the wartime alliance between Western democracies and the Soviet Union, the United States develop a foreign policy based on collective security, international aid, and economic institutions that bolstered noncommunist nations? (822-831, 834-835)

Post war tensions included: not including Russia in the Manhattan Project ( the atomic bomb), mistrust on each side, and Russia not granting self determination. Foreign policy based on collective security was the formation of NATO. NATO was defensive treaty to keep America on top. It stated that "an attack on one is an attack on all". The Marshall plan gave international aid to Europe to rebuild post war. Lastly, monetary funds, such as IMF and the world bank, were to keep the economy in shape. They promoted international economic cooperation, trade, employment, and exchange rate stability.

How did, concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States seek to contain communism through a variety of measures, including military engagements in Korea? (831, 834-835)

The containment policy was used to contain communism. This was a response to the formation of the Soviet Union expanding their spheres of influence. Without the spread of influence, governments will eventually fail. The Truman Doctrine would give aid to Russia if they did not succumb to communism and accepted capitalism.

How did Americans debate policies and methods designed to expose suspected communists within the United States even as both parties supported the broader strategy of containing communism? (835-837)

At this time, Americans were in fear of Russian communist that were integrated into American society. To expose them, union leaders had to take loyalty oaths and the Smith Act was enacted. The smith act made it easy to prosecute communists party members due to paranoia. The fear of Americans and the strategies to expose spies started with Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Julius and Rose were spies for the Soviet Union in America, eventually executed.

How did, concerned by expansionist Communist ideology and Soviet repression, the United States seek to contain communism through a variety of measures, including major military engagements in Vietnam? (863-864, 878)

How did postwar decolonization and the emergence of powerful nationalist movements in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East lead both sides in the Cold War to seek allies among new nations, many of which remained nonaligned? (863-865, 878)

How did Cold War competition extend to Latin America and Cuba, where the United States supported noncommunist regimes which had varying levels of commitment to democracy? (877-879)

Which country sent the first man into outer space?

Soviet Union

Who was the first American in outer space?

Alan Shepard

How long did the first American space flight last?

15 minutes and 22 seconds

Who was the President who wanted America to land on the moon?

John F. Kennedy

How many new astronauts were added in 1962?

9 more were added

What happened on November 22, 1963?

John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald

Who was the new space center in Florida named after?

John F. Kennedy

What did American space program do on June 3, 1965 in Gemini 4?

America’s first space walk

What problem did Gemini 8 experience?

The spacecraft was uncontrollably spinning/ tumbling, so they had to abort

Iron Curtain

The (imaginary) political boundary dividing democratic Western Europe and the communist controlled Eastern Europe.

Who assassinated John F. Kennedy?

Lee Harvey Oswald

What was the Soviets’ goal in Cold War?

Spread worldwide communism

What was the United States’ goal in the Cold War?

“Containment” of Communism & the eventual collapse of the Communist world.

Bi-polarization of Europe split the sides into what 2 groups?

NATO and Warsaw Pact

What were the leaders of the U.S. in order during the Cold War?

Harry Truman (1945-1952), Dwight Eisenhower (1952-1960), John F. Kennedy (1960-1963)

What were the leaders of the Soviet Union in order during the Cold War?

Joseph Stalin (1945-1953), Nikita Khrushchev (1954-1964)

What were the four countries’ zones of Germany and Berlin?

U.S., England, France, and Soviet Union

Satellite Nations

controlled and forced to go communist by Soviet Union; Russia freed these countries from the Nazis but didn’t allow them to have free government.

National Defense Budget (1940-1964)

U.S. spent a large amount of money from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II, so it slowed down, but went back up after 1950 from Cold War.

National Security Act (1947)

Created the department of Defense, the National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Federal Employees Loyalty & Security Program (1947)

Truman issued an executive order on March 21, 1947, which set up a program to check the loyalty of federal employees. 3.2 million people checked. 212 security risks found.

Hollywood 10

Congress believed Hollywood was making movies which were sympathetic towards the communists. The __Hollywood 10__ were the first group of actors, writers and directors called to testify. They refused and were arrested.

When did U.S. and Soviet Union test their first Hydrogen Bomb?

U.S.: November 1952

Soviet Union: 1954

U-2 Incident

On May 1st, 1960, an American spy plane (a U-2), flown by Francis Gary Powers, is shot down over Russia and the pilot captured. Powers was tried as a spy and imprisoned. He was later traded for a captured Soviet spy.

The Feminine Mystique

gave voice to millions of American women's frustrations with their limited gender roles and helped spark widespread public activism for gender equality

Plessy v. Fergusen

Case that was declared “separate but equal” by the Supreme Court in 1896. This decision by the Supreme Court was a poor call because it prevented the nation from making progress towards equality and rights between all races, which was the whole purpose of the Civil War’s conflicts between the North and South.

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Did the United States win the Vietnam War?

From 1955-1975. At first, the United States sent troops to South Vietnam to contain the North Communism from taking over the South. After over a decade of separation and conflicts, the United States withdrew their troops slowly from South Vietnam from 1969 to 1973. Following the United States withdrawal from South Vietnam, the North slowly took control over the South for the next 2 years. The South eventually fell in 1975, so North Vietnam ended up winning the War, as United States had failed to contain communism from the South.

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Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

the principal channel of student commitment to the civil rights movement

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Federal Highway Act of 1956

authorized the building of highways throughout the nation

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Dien Bien Phu

Fort where the French were defeated by the Vietnamese

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Freedom Riders

A group of Civil rights activists that rode interstate buses into the segregated Southern U.S. in 1961 to test the enforcement of Supreme Court decisions.

Black Power

a movement that aims to achieve self-determination for black people.

My Lai Massacre

U.S. soldiers murder 300 innocent women and children in My Lai, decreased support for the war.

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Détente

relaxed tension that Nixon used to increase his relationship with major communist powers.

EPA

organization that had a mission of protecting human health and preserving the environment.

Earth Day

Holiday made by the EPA that celebrates the earth and environment.

Southern Strategy

a political strategy to increase white voter turnout in southern states in light of demographic changes.

War Powers Act

stated that the President had to report to Congress within 48 hours of sending troops to fight in another foreign nation.

John F. Kennedy

former president of the United States before LBJ that was very popular among the citizens of the U.S. He played a major role in supporting the Civil Rights Movement, and also guided the US through the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Lyndon Baines Johnson

former President of the United States after JFK who heavily supported the Civil Rights movement carrying on JFK’s ideals. He started the war in Vietnam and decided not to re-run for presidency because he couldn’t see a way out of the war.

Malcolm X

A Civil Rights activist who preached violent demonstrations to remove the mistreatment of African Americans in the U.S.

Rachel Carson

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American marine biologist, writer, and conservationist who was the Author of Silent Spring.

Black Panther Party

a group of Civil Rights activists that represented a growing dissatisfaction with the nonviolent wing of the Civil Rights Movement and signaled for a more violent approach.

Brown v. Board of Education

In 1952, John Brown went to court against the Board of Education because his daughter was denied admission at a white school. Chief Justice Earl Warren believed segregation was unconstitutional, so he kept trying, until Warren rewrote the court’s decision, stating that the negative effects of segregation were more important than public education in the decision. As a result, the unanimous vote was achieved, ruling that separate educational facilities are inherently equal. In the coming years, a vast number of schools desegregated, creating equality in students regardless of their race. The Brown v. Board created a major impact in the nation by outlawing of segregation in schools and stimulating the Civil Rights movement.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

political and social protest campaign in the south where African American citizens would boycott the public buses to end segregation

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Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka

Final decision removed segregation from PUBLIC schools

Operation Wetback

coordinated effort involving the U.S. Border Patrol and local law enforcement agencies to curtail illegal immigration along the U.S.-Mexico border