Chapter 10: Learning

Omission training

also seeks to decrease the frequency of behavior by withholding the reward until the desired behavior is demonstrated.

Contiguity approach

is a method of teaching that involves linking new information to existing knowledge.

Neuroscientists

________ have tried to identify the neural correlates of learning.

Donald Hebb

proposed that human learning takes place by neurons forming new connections with one another or by the strengthening of connections that already exist.

Acquisition

takes place when the pairing of the natural and neutral stimuli (the loud noise and the rat) have occurred with enough frequency that the neutral stimulus alone will elicit the conditional response (cringing and crying)

BF Skinner

pioneered the study of operant conditioning, although the phenomenon first was discovered by Edward L. Thorndike, who proposed the law of effect, which states that a behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced.

Biofeedback

refers to people learning to alter their physiological processes by various cognitive control techniques.

Cognitive factors

are also implicated in learning, particularly in humans.

Punishment

is the process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Neuromodulators

strengthen the synapses between the sensory neurons (the ones that sense the touch) and the motor neurons (the ones that withdraw the gill) involved.

biological basis

The ________ of learning is of great interest to psychologists.

Long term potentiation

A physiological change that correlates with a relatively stable change in behavior as a result of experience.

Psychologists

________ use specific terms for the various stimuli in classical conditioning.

Negative reinforcement

is the removal of an aversive event in order to encourage the behavior.

Desensitization

refers to a decreased responsiveness to an aversive stimulus after repeated exposure.

Observational learning

is a phenomenon frequently discussed in the debate over violence in the media.

Kandel

________ found that when a strong stimulus, such as a shock, happens repeatedly, special neurons called modulatory neurons release neuromodulators.

Eric Kandel

________, a neuroscientist, examined classical conditioning in Aplysia.

Contingency approach

is a management theory that suggests that the most effective way to manage a situation is to assess the needs of the situation and then tailor the management approach to those needs.

Albert Bandura

conducted some of the most important research on social learning.

Classical conditioning

occurs when a neutral stimulus, paired with a previously meaningful stimulus, eventually takes on some meaning itself.

Positive reinforcement

is a reward or event that increases the likelihood that a particular type of response will be repeated.

Behavior modification

A combination of reinforcers and punishers designed to alter behavior

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A physiological change that correlates with a relatively stable change in behavior as a result of experience

Insight learning

This occurs when we puzzle over a solution to a problem, unsuccessfully, and then suddenly the complete solution appears to us

**Learning**

is a relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience.

**Nonassociative learning**

occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus.

**conditioned stimulus (CS)**

is the initially neutral stimulus—in our example, the light.

**unconditioned stimulus (US)**

is the initially meaningful stimulus.

**Acquisition**

takes place when the pairing of the natural and neutral stimuli (the loud noise and the rat) have occurred with enough frequency that the neutral stimulus alone will elicit the conditional response (cringing and crying).

**Extinction**

or the elimination of the conditioned response, can be achieved by presenting the CS without the US repeatedly (in other words, the white rat without the loud noise).

**Spontaneous recovery**

in which the original response disappears on its own, but then is elicited again by the previous CS at a later time, is also possible under certain circumstances.

**Contiguity approach**

is a method of teaching that involves linking new information to existing knowledge.

**Operant conditioning**

(also called **instrumental conditioning)** involves an organism’s learning to make a response in order to obtain a reward or avoid punishment.

**Differential reinforcement of successive approximations**

is a type of operant conditioning that involves reinforcing a behavior that is gradually getting closer to the desired behavior.

**Secondary reinforcement**

is provided by learned reinforcers.

**Omission training**

also seeks to decrease the frequency of behavior by withholding the reward until the desired behavior is demonstrated.

**schedule of reinforcement**

refers to the frequency with which an organism receives reinforcement for a given type of response.

**continuous reinforcement schedule**

every correct response that is emitted results in a reward.

**fixed-ratio schedule**

is one in which the reward always occurs after a fixed number of responses.

**variable-ratio schedule**

is one in which the ratio of responses to reinforcement is variable and unpredictable.

**fixed-interval schedule**

is one in which reinforcement is presented as a function of fixed periods of time, as long as there is at least one response.

**Variable-interval schedule**

reinforcement is presented at differing time intervals, as long as there is at least one response.

**Punishment**

is the process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

**Behavior modification**

A combination of reinforcers and punishers designed to alter behavior.

**Token economy**

an artificial economy based on tokens.

**Learned helplessness**

occurs when consistent efforts fail to bring rewards.

**Donald Hebb**

proposed that human learning takes place by neurons forming new connections with one another or by the strengthening of connections that already exist.

**Eric Kandel**

a neuroscientist, examined classical conditioning in *Aplysia*.

**Neuromodulators**

strengthen the synapses between the sensory neurons (the ones that sense the touch) and the motor neurons (the ones that withdraw the gill) involved.

**social learning**

(also called **observational learning),** which is learning based on observing the behavior of others as well as the consequences of that behavior.

**Albert Bandura**

conducted some of the most important research on social learning.

**Stimulus generalization**

is a process in which a response that has been learned in response to a particular stimulus is also given in response to similar stimuli.