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repair and restore - Sleep is allowing your body to rest and repair, and growth hormones are being released, very essential to physical growth when you're a child and when you’re an adult it helps your immune system (people who are sick more often are usually sleep deprived) The pituitary gland releases hormones to repair the body Resets overstimulated neurons depressed people want to sleep all the time, want to sleep during the day, and might not want to sleep at night
Protect and conserve - Protect us against danger Less likely to die from predators when sleeping in the dark (evolutionary perspective) Reduce energy demands Says that the body decreases metabolism up to 10% while you're asleep, this is why people say don’t eat before you go to sleep
Learn and Remember - Consolidate information learned during the day from short-term memory and store it in long-term memory… helps memory if you get a full 8 hours of sleep (why you shouldn’t pull all-nighters when preparing for a test) When we sleep, our body is prepares to store the information from the following day
REM (Rapid eye movement) - sometimes called a paradoxical sleep (20% of your sleep in REM state, thought to be where your dream states)
You remember your dreams better if you wake up in REM state, everyone dreams its just a matter of if you remember or not
Non-REM - Three Stages of deepening sleep (80% of sleep is in this Non-REM state)
Largest state that you’ll be in while sleeping, a deeper level of sleep
Shallow sleep
Awareness of the outside world remains
Theta waves
Hallucinations may happen during this stage because mind is still sort of awake but not fully awake
Hypnic jerks usually take place during this stage (sensation of falling then jerking up)
K complexes sleep spindles (rapid burst of brain activity, sleep spindles occur to try to block out outside noises, and distractions, to help you sleep)
Relatively light but transitioning into a deeper stage
Heart rate goes down, eye movement slows, body movement slows, etc
The longest sleep stage you’ll be in
About 50% of your sleep is here
(you do not want to nap longer than 20 minutes because if you allow your body to go into stages 3&4 of sleep because it will disrupt your overall sleep schedule, however, if you go past the 20-minute mark… your body will go into stages 3&4 of sleeping and you’ll end up in a deeper sleep)
Much deeper sleep
Hear 100 decimals or louder and still not wake up
Harder to wake up from this
Essential for actual restfulness
If you never enter into stage 3&4 sleep, you’ll never be fully rested
If you wake up during stage 3 or 4, you will experience mental grogginess
Brain is active
Body is immobile
Dreams feel real
Will occur about 90 minutes after falling asleep and will only last 10 minutes usually, its easier to wake up and remember dreams later down the line because REM sleep has become normal for you
A mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery
There’s no solid way to understand the meaning behind dreams but there are a few theories…
Alcohol - (behavior change, varying effects, can lead to frontal lobe damage if consumed in high doses it could damage, reasoning, hippocampus, forming memories and keeping memories)
Sedatives (ex: barbiturates and benzodiazepines) - barbiturates are usually used for anesthesia for surgery, and benzodiazepines are used to induce calm and relaxation… ex: valium and Xanax
Opioids aka Narcotics (morphine, heroin, fentanyl) - a class of drugs derived from opium (pain reliever) - made to mimic our own bodies pain-relieving endorphins, act on the brain as our own body would at varying degrees, they provide a level of bliss and relaxation (high potential for abuse)
The opioid crisis started in the 90s (Pharmaceutical companies pushed for giving opioids to people experiencing high levels of pain) (it takes about 5-7 salt specs to overdose on fentanyl)
Relieve pain,
Opium
Morphine
Codeine
Heroin
disrupt normal thought process
Marijuana (would have to take this in high doses to hallucinate) (can develop cravings for marijuana) (not significant research to back up that smoking marijuana can cause lung cancer) (could offer health benefits for pain relief and medical treatment, severe cancer could benefit) (synthetic marijuana could kill you)
LSD
Increases serotonin and dopamine… hallucinations usually take place (negative trips can happen)
Some are made in a lab; others are natural
Effects include changes in perceptions
Pain
Motor dysfunction
Sensory changes… Hard time dealing with lights and other sensory changes
Cognitive difficulties
Speech problems... Slurred speech, can’t find the word they wanna say
Confusion
Shorted attention spans
Prolonged unconsciousness
Not awake or aware
Usually doesn’t last longer than a few weeks
Awake but unaware
Vegetative state
After four weeks of this, they’ll be considered in a permanent state of vegetation, this is when people decide whether or not to pull the plug
Somewhat conscious of self and surroundings
For some people, that’s as far as they get when it comes to healing
Permanent loss of brain stem functioning
Generally considered to be dead at that point
The natural cycle that lasts 24 hours
Managed by the suprachiasmatic nuclease (SCN) (SCN will send out messages like its time to go to sleep, and it sends a message to send out melatonin)
The role of melatonin
Internal desynchronization (when biological rhythms are not in tune with each other) - ex: jet lag
Rhythm also affected by artificial light
(the reason why you don’t roll over things, pets, or people in bed is that your brain is still working and knows that there’s something there… same goes for rolling off the bed)
Part of whether or not you’re a night owl or if you’re a morning person is somewhat based on genetics
If you use lights before bed such as a reading light, watch tv, using a phone - your levels of melatonin are having a delayed release and it makes it hard to sleep
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Classical conditioning: when a previously neutral stimulus is linked with a stimulus that already elicits a response and, in turn, that stimulus leads to a similar response (Discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his study of dogs)
Principles of Classical Conditioning -
Acquisition - the US-CS pairing leads to initial learning
Extinction - if the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, the CR will eventually go away
Spontaneous recovery - if the CS is presented again after some time, it can produce a weaker CR
Higher-order conditioning - once a CS consistently creates a CR, other stimuli can become associated with the CS and produce a CR, even though the new CS has never been directly paired
Stimulus discrimination - the tendency to respond to two or more stimuli that are similar but, yet different on some dimension
Stimulus Generalization - After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus - the stimulus that elicits a response without learning (food naturally produces a response)
Conditioned stimulus… an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (a bell (neutral stimuli) is repeatedly paired with the presentation of food)
Unconditioned response…. The response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (Salivation is a natural response to a presentation of food)
Conditioned response…. The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after being paired with? (Through repeated pairings, eventually, the bell alone can elicit salvation even without food)
The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur, depending on the consequences
Studied by Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner
Fixed interval
Reinforcement is provided at a specific time (ex: getting a paycheck every 2 weeks)
Fixed ratio
Reinforcement is provided after a certain number of responses have been made (ex: behavior chart)
Variable interval
Reinforcement is provided after a time, but the time is not set (ex: waiting for an elevator or getting paid every two weeks sometimes then every 2 months another time)
Variable ratio
Reinforcement is provided after several responses, but the number is not fixed (ex: slot machines)
Primary: stimuli that is inherently punishing (painful stimuli… shocks, spanking, or physical violence)
Secondary: Stimuli that is considered punishment because of stimuli paring (bad grades, fines, etc)
Positive: adding something
Negative: taking something away
Reinforcement: increase the behavior
Punishment: decrease the behavior
When it does not involve physical abuse
Negative punishment should be used more (ex: time out)
When it is given consistently
Certainty over severity
When it is accompanied by information about the kind of behavior that is appropriate
When it is followed, whenever possible, by the reinforcement of desirable behavior
The extent of punishment isn’t as effective as being punished every time
Those who receive harsh or frequent punishment may respond with anxiety, fear, or rage
The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary
Most behavior is hard to punish immediately
Punishment, alone, conveys little information
An action intended to punish may instead be reinforced because it brings attention
Extrinsic
Reinforcers that come from an outside source and are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced (ex: toys, money, praise)
Intrinsic
Reinforcers that come from an internal source and are inherently related to the activity being reinforced (ex: personal enjoyment, satisfaction)
There are sometimes limitations on a species on what can be learned
Koko the gorilla
Activities that attempt to override biological constraints usually do not endure
Raccoons and coins
There is a relationship between violent media & aggression
Video games are active; violence is often rewarded (ex: advancing to the next level)
Bottom line: violent media, alone, cannot solely account for aggression, but do play a role
The idea that students learn best through visual, auditory, or kinesthetic methods
Should teaching styles be matched to learning styles?
Do learning styles actually exist?
Content is important
…There is no such thing as a learning style, people learn when they have a mixture of all three “learning styles”, content is far more important than style (if you’re taking an art class, you learn best through visual… if you’re taking a spanish class, you’ll probably learn best through auditory)
Strengthens the response
Behavior is more likely to occur
Positive vs Negative (something that always reinforces behavior)
Positive: adding something desirable to increase the frequency of the behavior occurring
Negative: taking something undesirable away to increase the frequency of the behavior occurring
Memory involves processing information
1st stage: Encoding
2nd Stage: Storage (consolidation)
3rd Stage: Retrieval
Reconsolidated memory can be different from the original memory
Misinformation effect: when a person mistakenly recalls misleading information
Elizabeth loftis studied biased memories and how memories change
One group looked at a video of a car approaching a stop sign
One group had a group look at a video approaching a yield sign
Another study, she showed a car crash
The idea that specific threatening or upsetting memories can be pushed into the unconscious and recalled accurately later
The debate erupted in the 1990s with claims of recovered memories of sexual abuse
“The problem for most people who have suffered disturbing experiences is not that they cannot remember, but rather than they cannot forget”
Once people develop a false memory, they strengthen their belief that the memory is true
Michelle smith story… she went to therapy and hypnosis, then remebered being a part of satanic rituals (wrote a book about it, ‘Michelle Remembers’)
When we experience trauma, our brain releases cortisol
It’s hard to accurately tell if repressed memories actually happened
Eyewitness testimony is among the strongest evidence in a case… and often the most unreliable
People are more likely to be convicted if there’s an eyewitness
Encoding errors
weapon focus effect - you aren’t looking at the perp, you’re paying attention to the danger you’re in
Another race effect - have difficulty identifying faces of other race
Unconscious transference
Police line-ups
Suggestible questions
Making memories meaningful
maintenance rehearsal Rote repetition of material
Elaboration rehearsal Association of new information with already stored knowledge Self - reference Encoding info in relation to the self Semantic Encoding meaning Acoustic Encoding sound Visual Encoding images 2
Most temporary type of memory we have
A storage level of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds
A fleeting sensory memory is made when each sensory system initially processes information
Eye (iconic)
Ear (echoic)
Touch (Hepatic)
a storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute
Information from all senses can be held for under a minute
Can be forgotten or transferred to long-term memory
Phonological loop: repeating information to keep it in short-term memory
Brain processing overlaps with areas involved in language
Visuospatial sketchpad: seeing mental images
Central executive function: allows for the manipulation of information in short-term memory
Retrograde - inability to remember anything before the brain trauma
Anterograde - inability to form new memories
Clyde - an example from class has dual amnesia - lost previous memories and is unable to form new memories but is able to remember some things. He can remember he has a wife Deborah, but can’t remember how they met… how they married... Etc
Free recall: accessing information from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval
Example: open-ended essays or short-answer questions
Cued recall: a form of retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the stored memory
Example: fill-in-the-blank questions that provide information in the question
Transience - the decreasing accessibility of memory over time.
Absent-mindedness - lapses of attention and forgetting to do things.
Blocking - temporary inaccessibility of stored information, such as tip-of-the-tongue syndrome.
Suggestibility - incorporation of misinformation into memory due to leading questions, deception and other causes.
Bias - retrospective distortions produced by current knowledge and beliefs.
Persistence - unwanted recollections that people can't forget, such as the unrelenting, intrusive memories of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Misattribution - attribution of memories to incorrect sources or believing that you have seen or heard something you haven't.
Confirmation bias: focusing attention on information that supports our views
Hindsight bias: creating after-the-fact explanations
Overconfidence bias: overestimating the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments
The tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from one alternative
Gain framed messages focus on what can be gained by choosing one alternative over another
Ex: Using sunscreen to avoid skin cancer makes people want to use sunscreen more
Loss-framed messages focus on what can be lost by choosing one alternative over another
These often promote protection. Ex: get a mammogram to ensure you protect yourself from cancer
Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind:
Struck by lightening chances 1 in 79,746
Shark attack chances 1 in 3, 748,067
a general intellectual ability assumed to underlie specific mental abilities and talents
Crystalized intelligence: cognitive skills and specific knowledge acquired over a lifetime
Dependent on education
Relatively stable over the lifetime
the capacity to reason and use the information to solve problems
Independent education
Tends to decrease with age
the ability to identify emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others
People high in emotional intelligence use their emotions to motivate themselves, spur creative thinking, and deal empathetically with others
People often low in EI are often unable to identify their own emotions, may express emotions inappropriately, and may misread non-verbal cues
Alfred Binet created the first intelligence test in 1904, IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100… he did this to see which kids were slow learners and which were working at a normal level
Issues with American Version
Original purpose was lost since it was originally a french test
Overlooked cultural and ethnic differences
Average IQ is 100
Around 75 is considered to be a developmental disorder
Note 
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