UNIT 4

Transoceanic Voyaging

The interconnection of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres through sea travel, transforming trade and impacting social structures globally.

Technological Diffusion

The spread of knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from various civilizations like Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds, influencing European innovations.

Agricultural Transformations

Changes in agricultural labor, manufacturing systems, gender roles, and social structures due to increased demand for raw materials and products.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The intensified demand for labor, leading to the expansion of plantations and the development of the transatlantic slave trade.

Empires and Global Influence

The expansion of empires worldwide, influencing and being influenced by diverse populations, shaping social structures.

Sea-based Empires

The shift of power from land-based to sea-based empires in Europe through the adoption of maritime technologies and innovations.

Causes of European Exploration

Factors like economic motives, technological advancements, and the desire for new trade routes driving European exploration and expansion.

Columbian Exchange

The transfer of diseases, food, plants, and animals between Eastern and Western hemispheres, impacting societies and economies globally.

Maritime Empires

The establishment of European maritime empires driven by motives of wealth, religion, and power, leading to the dominance of trade routes.

Economic Systems in Colonies

Structuring of colonial economies around agriculture, utilizing labor systems like chattel slavery, indentured servitude, and encomienda.

Joint-stock companies

Private businesses funded by individual investors, not the state, to facilitate mutual arrangements for expanding empires.

Dutch East India Company

Chartered in 1602 by the Dutch state, granted a monopoly on Indian Ocean trade, leading to wealth for investors and expanded influence for the government.

Afro-Eurasian Markets

Continuously thriving regional markets across Afro-Eurasia, despite European influence in Indian Ocean trade networks.

Atlantic System

Triangle trade movement of goods, wealth, and labor between eastern and western hemispheres, initiated by Christopher Columbus' explorations.

Maroon societies

Communities of escaped and free blacks in European colonies, particularly in Brazil and the Caribbean, resisting European authorities and fighting for freedom.

Casta system

Social hierarchy in Spanish colonies, with Peninsulares at the top, Creoles below, and Castas including mestizos, mulattos, natives, and slaves based on ethnicity and heredity.

Russian Boyars

Aristocratic land-owning class in Russia, who lost power to Peter the Great and were eventually removed from the Russian bureaucracy.

Ottoman Timars

Land grants by the Ottoman state to an aristocratic class, later converted to tax farms by the sultans, leaving aristocrats landless and impoverished.