UNIT 4
Unit 4 - Transoceanic Interconnections (1450-1750)
Explain how economic developments from 1450 to 1750 affected social structures over time.
The interconnection of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, made possible by transoceanic voyaging, transformed trade and had a significant social impact on the world.
Knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread, facilitating European technological developments and innovation.
The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and current patterns—all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.
Although the world's productive systems continued to be heavily centered on agriculture, major changes occurred in agricultural labor, the systems and locations of manufacturing, gender and social structures, and environmental processes.
The demand for labor intensified as a result of the growing global demand for raw materials and finished products. Traditional peasant agriculture increased and changed in nature, plantations expanded, and the Atlantic slave trade developed and intensified.
Empires achieved increased scope and influence around the world, shaping and being shaped by the diverse populations they incorporated.
Economic disputes led to rivalries and conflict between states.
Technology in Sea-based Empires
During 1450-1700, power began to shift from land-based empires to sea-based empires in Europe
Due to adoption of new technologies that gave rise to empires in Europe
Adopted Maritime Technology
Magnetic compass
Developed in China
Helped navigate more accurately overseas
Astrolabe
Helped sailors to determine latitude and longitude
First developed by either Arabs or Greeks
Lateen Sail
Triangular-shaped sail developed by Arabs
Could take wind on either side of sail
Improved Astronomical Charts
Diagrams of stars and constellations, helping sailors know exactly where they were
Muslims responsible for charts, but built off of work of other Greek
Knowledge of Winds
Europeans didn’t invent these technologies, but adopted them from others
Gained from exposure through trade routes
Could occur due to Pax Mongolica
European Shipbuilding Innovations
Caravel (Portugal)
Made a smaller size, allowing for more movement
Were more navigable, able to go into deeper water and be more nimble
Could be very strong fighting ships due to their speed and agility
Carrack (Portugal)
Much larger, able to carry more
Increased firepower in the Carrack allowed for more power from Indian Ocean
Fluyt (Dutch)
A ship designed only for trade
Massive cargo holds, and only needed a small crew to handle
Cheap to build due to tools used to make
Were responsible for half of Europe's shipping tonnage, overtook Portugal in trading power
Causes of European Exploration
The Age of Exploration – Causes.pdf
Age of Exploration - The Explorers.pdf
Age of Exploration - Conquest and Colonization 2021-22.pdf
State Sponsored Exploration
Sea-based empire building was state sponsored, result of change in distribution of power in the European states
After Black Death, population grew and monarchs began to gain power again from consolidating power
European monarchs built up their militaries, learned how to use gunpowder weapons, and put in more efficient ways to tax the people
A large motivator for states sponsoring exploration was an increasing desire for Asian/Southeast Asian spices, most notably pepper
Land routes brang spices, but were extremely expensive as others controlled the land that it passed through
After fall of constantinople, reliance on a new trading system known as the Hanseatic League which involved north European city-states
Portugal’s Trading Post Empire
Portugal had no way to expand through land as it was surrounded by Castille and Aragon
Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored first European attempts to find route to Indian Ocean
Motivations
Technology
New technologies were adopted, such as the compass and astrolabe
Development of new ships, Caravels and Carracks
Economics
Henry was aware of riches in Indian Ocean trade (mostly due to Trans-Saharan Gold)
Desire of spices from trade in the Indian Ocean
Religion
Growing desire to spread Christianity after Spanish and Portuguese reconquered Iberian Peninsula from Muslims (Umayyad Caliphate) during the Reconquista
Desired to find fabled eastern Christian monarch (prester John)
Established self sufficient trading posts throughout sea-exploration campaign (forming a trading post empire around Africa and then later the Indian Ocean)
Established first major trading post in West Africa, people were very eager to trade
Vasco De Gama sailed around southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope), setting up posts down western and eastern coast of Africa
Traveled all the way to Calicut, realized that participation in Indian Ocean trade was much greater than trade in Africa
Led to more trading posts established in the area all the way to Southeast Asia
After Portuguese arrived, wanted to fully control network, were able to due to heavy firepower on Portuguese ships
Spain’s Sea-based Empire
Chrisopher Columbus wanted to be sponsored for a westward voyage to find a faster route to India, agreed to by Spain
Would end up in the Caribbean in the belief that it was India, hence its name the West Indies and its inhabitants, Indians.
After Columbus discovered the Americas, Spain sponsored more explorers like Ferdinand Magellan, who went through Americas to reach East Indies
Spanish began to send fleets to Americas to conquer and colonize every place, opening trans-atlantic trade
In 1519- Hernando Cortes arrives in Mexico
In 1533- Francisco Pizarro invaded Peru
Pizarro and Cortes are called conquistadors (Spanish leaders who conquered the new world)
Other European States’ Empires
Causes for Exploration
Political rivalry between different states
Envy
Desire for Wealth
Need to find alternative routes to Asia
France
Sponsored expeditions seeking Westward passages into Indian Ocean (unsuccessful lmao)
As French explored North America, established themselves in fur trade in the regions
Explorer Samuel de Champlain established Quebec in 1608
Mainly established presence with trading posts due to death from disease and battles with Iroquois
England
Was late to exploration due to flourishing textile industry producing lots of money making exploration less necessary
After Queen Elizabeth I rose to power and defeated Spain's attempts of invasion, she supported exploration
Commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to lead exploration, establishing first colony in Americas (Virginia), establishment of Jamestown in 1607
Dutch Republic
After 1579, gained independence from Spain, and emerged as wealthiest state in Europe
Competed with Portugal for trading posts in Africa, dethroning Portugal as “ruler” over Indian Ocean trade
Sponsored Henry Hudson in 1608 to sail west in order to establish Dutch colony in America (New Amsterdam)
Columbian Exchange
Definition and Causes
The transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres
Occasion for a massive change in world history
Causes
After Spain sent Columbus west to Americans, led to the start of the Columbian exchange
The Columbian Exchange resulted from Europeans' exploration, conquest, and settlement of the Americas
Effects
Transfer of Disease
When Europeans went to America, disease vectors were brought with them (rats + mosquitoes)
Caused devastation across continents as new populations never contacted these diseases
Malaria, carried by mosquitoes (introduced by enslaved Africans brought for plantation work)
Measles, spread rapidly throughout highly populated areas, devastating populations
Smallpox, spreading through central to south America, killing half the population
Made European takeover of Americas much more easier due to losses sustained by natives
Plants and Food
European explorers brought wheat, grapes, olives (staples of European food) as well as Asian foods such as bananas/sugar
Natives mostly maintained traditional diets, but adopted some of the new foods, expanding their diet and increased lifespan
Maize, manioc, potatoes were transferred to Europe from trade
Had similar effect in Europe, diversifying diets and leading to a healthier population and more growth
Some crops from New World also spread to Asia and Africa (maize and manioc)
Grown as cash crops (agriculture in which food is grown for export) on European controlled plantations in Americas, allowing for prosperity
Had massive plantations, worked by coerced labor (no choice in the matter) Ex. Sugar plantations in Carribeans worked by slaves
Animals
Europeans brought domesticated animals such as pigs, sheep, and cattle which exploded in populations
Created foundation for future ranching economies
Caused dire environmental consequences, putting strains on indigenous farmers
Erosion became a significant problem due to livestock eating large amounts of grass
Horses changed society of indigenous people by allowing them to hunt buffalo more effectively
Maritime Empires Established
European Trade Ascendancy
Motives for development of maritime empires comprised of gold, god, and glory
Wanted to enrich themselves
Wanted all world to worship Jesus
Wanted to be the greatest state in the world
Portuguese
First to establish trading post empire
Due to taking advantage of lightly armed ships in trade routes
Once the Portuguese inserted themselves into trade network, they wanted to own it and control it by force
Spanish
Set up influence in the Philippines
Spanish wanted to establish full colonies, used tribute systems, taxation, and coerced labor (similar to in Americas)
Dutch
Deposed the Portuguese influence over Indian trade routes
Used many of the same methods as portuguese
British
Set up various trading posts throughout India as they did not have enough power to overtake Mughals
Continuity in Trade
Middle Eastern, South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian Merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use the network
European entrance into trade route increased profits for both parties
Merchants like the Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire continued to make use of Indian Ocean trade while Europeans sought to dominate it, increasing their power and wealth
Asian Resistance
Tokugawa Japan
Initially open to trade, but later realized that Europeans were threat to Japanese unification
Expelled all christian missionaries from Japan in 16th century
Ming China
One of the motives for voyages of Zheng He was to create a situation in which most of maritime trade in Indian Ocean was processed through the Chinese state
Was unsuccessful, resulting in series of isolationist trade policies shutting down sea-based trade in China
Portuguese was only able to trade with bribery
Expansion of African States
Asante Empire
Located in West Africa
Key trading partner with the Portuguese, later the British
Provided gold, ivory, and enslaved laborers
Allowed for growth and expansion of military throughout the region
Used power to repel British from colonizing
Kingdom of the Kongo
Made strong diplomatic ties with Portuguese traders who wanted gold, copper, and slaves
To facilitate trade, king converted to christianity as well as many other nobles
Despite deterioration of relation, interaction helped to massively enrich African States
Economic and Labor Systems
Colonial economies were structured around agriculture
To keep economy thriving, used existing and new labor systems
Spanish made use of old Inca mit’a system
Inca developed system in which subjects of empire were required to provide labor for state projects for certain days a year
Used to harvest and mine silver from Americas
Chattel Slavery
Enslaved Africans were sent by millions throughout the Americas to work on plantations
Chattel = property, laborers were owned as property and could be used to will of the owner
Was first to be race-based, and made slavery hereditary
Indentured Servitude
Laborer would sign a contract (indenture) that bound them to a work for a certain amount of time
Many poor europeans entered agreement to pay for their pass into the New World colonies, and would be free once finished
Encomienda System
Used to coarse indigenous to work for colonial authorities
Forced to provide labor for Spanish in return for food and protection
Similar to feudalism
Hacienda System
Large agricultural estates owned by elite Spainards on which indigenous laborers were forced to work on fields whose crops were sold and exported to global markets
Differed from encomienda as hacienda was more based on food export while encomienda was based off of whole populations
Development of Slavery
Had both continuity and changes
Continuity
African Slave trade was not new development due to rise of maritime empires
Was a regular development in Mediterranean and Indian networks
Slaves were often assimilated into cultures in which they were sold to
In Islamic world, african slaves became domestic servants in households, where high demand was for women
Slaves were able to hold power, such as in significant military/political positions
Changes
Agricultural work
Males were purchased 2:1 which impacted demographics in African states
Trans-Atlantic trade was more widespread than its Indian Ocean and Mediterranean counterparts (12.5 million over 350 years)
Racial Prejudice
In Americas, slavery became identified with blackness, which justified brutality of slavery
People believed that if others were black, they were less than human
Maritime Empires Maintained
Economic Strategies
Mercantilism
State-driven economic system that emphasizes buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining favorable balance of trade
Competition for resources and valuable minerals, such as gold, consolidating limited resources
Strove to maintain favorable balance of trade, which was more exports than imports (more export means more gold and silver gain)
Acted as a powerful motivation for establishing empires as it created a closed market to purchase exports from imperial parent country
Joint-Stock Companies
Limited liability business, often chartered by state, which was funded by investors
Investors can only lose money they invested
Gov’t approved business and often granted it trade monopolies in various countries/regions
Was a big innovation in how businesses were funded as they were privately owned, not state funded
In order for mercantilism to allow expansion, state and merchants become linked in mutual interdependence
State relied on merchants to expand influence in farther lands
Merchants relied on state to keep interest and activities safe, as well as providing monopolies in various areas
Joint-stock companies became a tool that allowed mutual arrangement to lead to expanding empires
Dutch East India Company
Chartered in 1602 by the dutch state who subsequently granted the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Ocean
Investors became very rich, and government was able to expand influence across many places in Indian Ocean
French and British also established similar companies, for trade and imperial expansion
Rivalry between these companies led to conflict, such as in Anglo-Dutch war
States such as Spain and Portugal were mainly funding their trade and ventures through state instead of joint-stock companies
Led to loss of influence on the world
Changes and Continuities in Trade Networks
Continuities
Afro-Eurasian Markets Thrived
Regional markets across Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish and increase their reach on the economy
Even though the Europeans had strong influence over Indian Ocean trade networks, other merchants were still able to benefit
Asian Land Routes
Overland routes like the Silk Roads almost entirely controlled by Asian land-based powers, such as Ming then Qing Dynasty
Peasant and Artisan Labor
Most people continued to work in same ways they always had worked, such as peasants only farming for survival
With increasing demand for goods, peasants produced more and more agricultural goods for distant markets
Artisans were skilled laborers who made goods by hand, and increased production as demand grew
Changes
Rise of Atlantic System (triangle trade)
Described movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between eastern and western hemispheres
Did not exist until explorations of Christopher Columbus
Importance of Sugar
Colonial plantations of sugar in Carribeans decreased prices of sugar, demand for sugar increased in Europe
High value of silver
Mined in Spanish colonies (ex. Potosi), given into the wider European economy and sold to China
Satisfied Chinese Demand for Silver
Further developed commercialization of their economy
Increased Profits
Goods purchased in Asian markets such as silk, porcelain, and steel were traded across Atlantic system which resulted in more profit
Coerced Labor
Forced Indigenous Labor (spanish)
Indentured Servitude (british)
Enslaved Africans (most powers)
Maintained by global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by heads of state to chartered companies (joint-stock companies)
Atlantic system of trade helped to turn European states into strong political and geographical entities
Social Effects of Slave Trade
Gender Imbalance
Caused due to intensive agricultural work led to higher demand for male slaves
Changed Family Structures
Due to deprivation of male population, West African states had an increase of polygamy (many wives)
Cultural Synthesis
When slaves that had various backgrounds arrived in Americas, adopted creole/mixed languages after a generation
Were mixes of European and African languages, and some native language
Belief Systems
Spanish and Portuguese Christianity in South America
Both sent missionaries to their colonies
Used church as instrument to spread religion to natives
Led to imposing and introduction of European language and culture on natives
Spread rapidly due to printing press
Some groups outwardly adopted Christianity, but secretly continued to practice their own belief systems
Some missionaries protected these natives from the abuse of colonial authorities, such as Bartolomé de las Casas
Led to outlaw of slaving natives and limiting coerced labor
Slow progress led to blending of Christianity and native belief systems
Africans also brought beliefs with them too, causing more blending
2Challenges to State Power
During expansion of sea-based empires, faced opposition against
Local Resistance
European states increased efforts to centralize power to maintain economic and political control over global possessions
People in colonies did not want to be controlled, causing local resistance
Fronde
Occurred in France
Absolutism - complete control from one person
Several new edicts were passed that increased taxation among French, and nobility (who had less power due to monarchy) led peasants in spontaneous rebellions
Resistance was crushed, led to increase in power in the monarchy
Queen Ana Nzinga’s Rebellion
Nzinga ruled over sub saharan kingdoms Matamba and Ndongo
Was growing concerned over encroachment of the Portuguese merchants
Allied with dutch and kingdom of Congo to fight back
Successful in resistance
Pueblo Revolt
Occurred in North America
Pueblos lived terrible and oppressive abuse conditions due to Spanish missionaries
Forced into coerced labor for Spanish projects, suffering disease (leaving 25% of original population)
In 1608, Pueblos organized under Po'pay, violently revolting against Spanish missionaries
Temporarily able to remove Spanish, but Spanish returned a decade later and regained control
Because of relentless efforts of European states to expand their empires and consolidate power, various groups that suffered these effects resisted, some of which were successful while others were unsuccessful
Slave Resistance
Millions of enslaved african americans were bought and coerced into brutal agriculture plantations
Maroon societies
Occurred in Brazil and Carribeans as those had the most slaves
Most of European colonies that majored in slavery for agriculture had small populations of free blacks
Some heavily abused slaves escaped and joined this community
Known as maroon societies
Europeans heavily opposed Maroon communities as they served as endless enticement for workers to leave and flee
In Jamaica, British colonial authorities tried to crush communities, but they fought back
Were able to win over British militia due to terrain and environment
Led to signing of a treaty in 1738 recognizing freedom of this community
British colonies
Occurred in North America
Stono Rebellion of 1379
Lucrative trade of indigo and rice caused major agricultural operation
Led to larger amounts of slaves sent to South Carolina to farm more
Caused an overwhelming amount of slaves in the population
Slaves stormed armories and killed enslavers, local militia stomped uprising but the movement struck fear
Changing Social Hierarchies
Responses to Ethnic Diversity
Ranged from expulsion to tolerance
Jews in Spain and Portugal faced expulsion
After the reconquista, Spanish kicked out Muslims, re-establishing Christianity as official religion
Spain thought that Jews would pose a threat to religious domination, signing a decree to remove any Jews due to fear of Jewish influence on Christian
After Jewish tried to flee to Portugal, Portugal also kicked them out due to royal marriage alliance to Spanish family
Jews in Ottoman Empire were tolerated
After being known of the expulsion in Spain, Sultanate Mehmed the Second opened his empire to displaced Jews
Due to relative tolerance of Ottomans, some Jews were able to rise in prominence
“Relative tolerance” meant jews did not enjoy full equality, having to pay the jizya tax (tax from non-muslims)
Had to live only in designated areas in urban centers
Qing dynasty was established by outsiders (Manchu), who adopted some of traditional Chinese culture such as Confucian principles of leadership, they also made a sharp division between the ethnic Manchu and Hans in their empire
All highest positions were only reserved for the pure Manchu, while ethnic Hans were barred from high positions
All Hans had to wear hair in braided queues, which acted as a form of humiliation for ethnic Han, reminding them of foreign rule
In Mughal Empire, there was a great tolerance of diversity with Akbar the Great, extending to ethnic and religious minorities
Did not implement jizya, and funded construction of churches, temples, and mosques
Rise of New Elites
New economic opportunities of increasing global trade and increased political power of imperial ventures led to rise of new political elites
Conquistadors that migrated and established Spanish colonies worked to establish a social hierarchy, formed the casta system
Peninsulares were on the top of the hierarchy (born in peninsula), and Creoles (european, born in New World)
Castas were the classes under them, mestizos (native and european), mulattos (african and european), natives, and slaves
Prior to casta system, natives were parts of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups, and was erased after the creation
Based on ethnicity and heredity
Struggles of Existing Elites
Russian Boyars
Group made up aristocratic land-owning class in Russia and they exerted great power in administration of empire for centuries
After rise of power in Peter the Great, he took measures to remove power from Boyars for himself
After Boyars protested, Peter the Great fully removed the rank in Russia
Required anyone that wanted to be in Russian bureaucracy to serve gov’t directly
Ottoman Timars
Land grants made by Ottoman state to an aristocratic class in payment for service to gov’t, usually in military service
Aristocrats who controlled these grew rich through taxation of people living on that land
By 16th century, Ottoman sultans began taking over timars, converting to tax farms which gave revenue directly to the state
Left aristocrats without land and poor after seizure of the lands