Unit 3: Development & Learning

Based on 2024-25 CED

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Charles Spearman

theorized an overarching general intelligence existed

LL Thurstone

identified 7 clusters of “primary mental abilities” as a counter-argument to Spearman but proved him accidentally

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

theorized there were 8 (possibly 9) relatively independent intelligences; 1 ability can be damaged without damaging others

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person with otherwise limited mental ability has an exceptional specific skill; most common in Autistic males

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

theorized there are 3 types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

analytical intelligence

ability to solve well-defined problems with a single right answer; assessed by intelligence tests

creative intelligence

ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas

practical intelligence

ability to solve problems that are poorly defined and may have multiple solutions

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

emotional intelligence

perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions

perceiving emotions

recognizing emotions in yourself, others, and the media

understanding emotions

predicting emotions and how they may change and blend

managing emotions

knowing how to express emotions and manage others’

using emotions

to facilitate adaptive or creative thinking

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others’ using numerical scores

achievement test

assesses what a person has learned

aptitude test

predicts a person’s future performance

Francis Galton

inspired by Darwinism to try to measure “natural ability;” believed in “hereditary genius;” developed the first intelligence test

Alfred Binet

wanted to measure mental age for French schools to provide better education; tested mental aptitude via problem-solving and reasoning questions

mental age

level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

Lewis Terman

adapted Binet’s test to evaluate adults as well and redefined his age norms: Stanford-Binet Model

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

originally defined as mental age divided by chronological age x 100;

David Wechsler

created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most widely used intelligence test; assesses similarities, vocabulary, block design, and letter-number sequencing; provides overall and separate strength scores

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pre-tested group; scores should form a normal bell curve

Flynn effect

worldwide rising performance on intelligence tests over time; attributed to modern advancements

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

test-retest reliability

scores after retakes are similar

split-half reliability

mean scores of odd and even questions are similar

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

construct validity

the extent to which a test measures what it claims to be measuring

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; assessed by computing correlation between scores and the criterion behavior

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence (Gf)

ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age

cross-sectional study

compares people of different ages at the same point in time; imply that intelligence declines sharply with age

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time; imply intelligence remains relatively stable until late in life

intelligence scores below age 3

only modestly predict future aptitudes

intelligence scores around age 4

begin to predict adolescent and adult scores

intelligence scores at age 7

intelligence scores are set

declining intelligence scores

can be caused by TBI or drug use

intelligence and life expectancy

people who are more intelligent often live longer and healthier because it facilitates better jobs with better environments and healthier living

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability characterized by an intelligence score below 70 and difficulty adapting to demands of life and independence

Down Syndrome

a condition of mild to sever intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

high extreme intelligence scores

people are typically well adjusted and successful

twins and intelligence

identical twins raised together score as if the same person is testing twice; fraternal twins differ more but are still more similar than siblings

what gene is linked to intelligence?

no single gene, it is polygenetic

environment and intelligence

poor environmental conditions, nutrition, and emotional well-being, as well as neglect can depress cognitive development

growth mindset

people with the ability, opportunity, and motivation are more successful; people who believe intelligence is fluid are more likely to pursue challenges and conditions that encourage cognitive development

differences between biological sexes

the difference is not statistically significant; gaps in academic performance positively correlate to gender equality in society

male advantages

spatial ability, complex math problems

female advantages

more sensitive to touch, taste, color, and location, verbal fluency, spelling, and detecting locations

differences between race/ethnicity

racial and ethnic groups differ in average intelligence scores; group differences of a heritable trait are related to environment NOT genetics

scientific definition of bias

lacking validity

alternate definition of bias

detecting cultural differences, not just innate ones

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

stereotype lift

the performance boost caused by the awareness that an “out” group is negatively stereotyped

developmental psychology

study of psysical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

Nature vs. Nurture debate

interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences on development; psychologists agree that differences between goups are environmental while individual differences are genetic

continuity & stages

experience and learning seem to develop gradually; biological maturation seems to develop in more abrupt stages

stage theory

the idea that development occurs in distinct stages; helpful as a concept but widely regarded as inaccurate for child development

stability & change

temperament and emotionality remain relatively stable throughout lifetime; social attitudes change heavily

zygote

the fertilized egg; enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

developing human organism from 2 weeks through the second month

fetus

developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

prenatal development

environmental and genetic factors impact development; fetuses react and adapt to sound such as the mother’s voice; certain substances can pass from the mother to the fetus

teratogen

agnets, such as viruses and drugs, that can damage an embryo or fetus

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant person’s heavy drinking; severe cases can cause small, disproportionate heads and abnormal facial features

alchohol and pregnancy

alchohol leaves epigenetic chemical marks that randomly switch genes on and off and leaves scars that may reduce ability to handle stresss

stress and pregnancy

extreme stress during pregnancy can cause early deliver and health problems

habituation

decreased responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants become familiar with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

newborn mental development

born with many reflexes (eg. startle, suckle, grasping) and can recognize their mother’s scent and prefer it over other women’s scents

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

brain development

occurs rapidly in the days after birth; rapid frontal lobe growth occurs from ages 3 to 6, followed by association areas; lots of pruning occurs in puberty

motor development

children roll over, then sit, then crawl, the walk because of the sequence of nervous system development; development of the cerebellum causes children’s readiness to walk around age 1

brain maturation and memory

infantile amnesia is caused by immature hippocampus and frontal lobes before age 4; this is also why babies struggle with conscious recall of memories

cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Jean Piaget

proposed that we build schemas a we struggle to make sense of our experiences; proposed 4 stages of cognitive development but underestimated children’s cognitive abilities

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our schema; eg. seeing a hyena and calling it a dog

accommodation

adapting our schemas to incorporate new information; eg. recognizing that hyenas are not dogs

4 stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor

2. preoperational

3. concrete operational

4. formal operational

sensorimotor stage

birth to age 2; infants take in the world in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities; lack object permanence before 8 months and develop stranger anxiety

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; develops around 8 months

stranger anxiety

fear of unfamiliar people seen in infants in the sensorimotor stage

preoperational stage

ages 2 to 7; child learns to use language but doesn’t yet comprehend mental operations and concrete logic; conservation, artificialism, animism, and egocentrism develop;

conservation

the principle that mass, volume, number, etc. remain that same despite changes in the forms of objects; develops around age 6

symbolic thinking/pretend play

the ability to recognize a model as a representation of something real; develops around age 3

egocentrism

the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

animism

the preoperational child’s belief that all thinks are living like the child

artificialism

the preoperational child’s belief that all objects are made by people

concrete operational stage

ages 7 to 12; children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events, execute mathematical transformations, and comprehend analogies; children gain reversability, master conservation, and begin to develop theory of mind

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states; their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors they might predict

reversability

the idea that a concept can be reversed, including but not limited to mathematical operations

formal operational stage

age 12 to adulthood; abstract thinking develops including imagined realities, logic, and mature moral reasoning

Lev Vygotsky

believed the child’s mind grows through social interaction, challenge, and self-talk