* memory, decision making, problem solving, and language
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encoding
bringing in information from environment and processing it
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storage
holding information in memory over time
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retrieval
locating and pulling information from memory into consciousness
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attention
information most attended to will be encoded best and therefore remembered better (requires effort)
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cocktail party effect
in a crowded environment, we can focus on one conversation while blocking out the rest; however, when your name/ or something relevant to you is said, your attention shifts
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structural encoding
what the stimulus looks like
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phonemic (acoustic) encoding
what the stimulus sounds like
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semantic encoding
what the meaning of the stimulus is
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elaborative encoding
making connections between new and old information
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self-referent encoding
a form of elaborative encoding that involves making connections between new information and yourself
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levels of processing model of memory \#1
how deeply we encode information determines how well we recall information; deeper = better recall
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what form of encoding are shallow?
structural encoding
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which forms of encoding are deep?
phonemic and semantic
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information processing model of memory \#2
memory is made up of stores: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
* atkinson and shiffen model/multistore model
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short term memory
information selectively attended to is sent here from sensory memory
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how is short term memory is primarily retained?
rehearsal/repetition and maintain rehearsal
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what is the primary type of encoding in short term memory?
acoustic
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what is the capacity of STM?
7+/-2; 5-9 items
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what is the duration of STM?
20 seconds
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chunking
grouping items; increases amount of information we can recall
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long term memory capacity
unlimited
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long term memory duration
forever
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what is the primary type of encoding?
semantic (semantic + visual = best)
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flashbulb memories
detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant events; usually when we first heard the information
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schemas
mental representations of people, objects, events, ideas, etc; created by experience (visual, auditory, and emotional)
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parallel distributed processing model of memory \#3
consists of an interconnected network of facts and mmmories where new information is added to the web. therefore it increases the interconnectedness and produces a better memory
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retrieval cues
anything that aids in memory retrieval (explicity/implicit)
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mnemonic devices
strategies for enhancing memory that involve unusual associations
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acrostics
phrases
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acronyms
a word formed by using first letters
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link/story method
forming a mental image of items to be rememebered in a way that links them together
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loci method
memory palace; taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
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overlearning
continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it; overcoming the forgetting curve
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context dependent learning
remember information best in the same/similar physical location
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state dependent learning
remembering information best in the same physiological state as when we learned the information
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mood congruency
information processing/recall is facilitated if a person's emotional state is similar to the tone of the information; or the state emotional state
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distributed practice
studying in small chunks
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massed practice
studying in large intervals
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the serial position curve/effect
better recall of items at the beginning and end of the list; "U-shaped retention curve"
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primacy effect/iconic memory
better recall of items at the beginning of a list
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recency effect/echoic memory
better recall of items at the end of a list
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tip of the tongue phenomenon
retrieval of incomplete information
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constructive memory
using existing knowledge, schemas, and experiences to fill in the gap in information during encoding and retrieval; mandela effect
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elizabeth loftus' research
subjects were shown a car crash
interrogator asks group 1 how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other; they said 41mph
ask 2nd group how fast were the cars going when they hit each other; they said 32 mph
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misinformation effect
when memory is altered by misleading post event information; mood, framing
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reality monitoring
the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (actual event) or internal source (thoughts and imagination)
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source monitoring, monitoring error, and amnesia
making attributions about the origins of memory; who told me? where did I read it?; error - mistake; amnesia - don't know
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destination memory
recalling to whom one has told what; error
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forgetting curve - ebbinghaus
most forgetting happens within the first hour; after about 9 hours, memory is relatively constant; retention - proportion of material retained/remembered
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recall
no cues
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recognition
selection from an array of options
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relearning/method of savings
less time/fewer trials are needed to memorize/remember information after having forgotten
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ineffective encoding
you didn't forget,, you never encoded it in the first place
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decay
gradual erosion of memory; fading because you didn't use it
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retroactive interference
new/similar information impairs recall of old information
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proactive interference
old information impairs learning/recall of new/similar information
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PORN
Proactive Old interferes with new Retroactive New interferes with old
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transfer appropriate processing model of memory \#4
how well we remember information is based on how encoding matches retrieval
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encoding specificity principle
best retrieval cues - those that match the way the information is encoded
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motivated forgetting (repression)
pushing memories into the unconscious; psychodynamic approach
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retrospective memory
remembering events from the past/ previously learned information
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prospective memory
remembering to perform actions in the future
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episodic memory
memories of specific events that happened while you were present; I remember when...
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semantic memory
memories of factual information; generalized knowledge
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procedural memory
memories of physical skills; cerebellum and basal ganglia
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declarative memory (explicit memory)
factual information (semantic and episodic memories); hippocampus and frontal lobe
increase in synaptic strength; practicing/reviewing strengthens synaptic connections to improve memory
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retrograde amnesia
loss of memory prior to onset of amnesia
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anterograde amnesia
hippocampal damage; loss of memory of events occuring after the onset of amnesia; inability to form memories
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which structures and neurotransmitters are involved in memory formation?
hippocampus, thalamus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and association cortex; acetylcholine and glutamate
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functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use; the inability to use objects in different ways
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mental set
persistence in using problem-solving strategies that've worked in the past; barrier when it prevents you from seeing other ways of solving a problem
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fixation
focusing on only one aspect of a problem; inability to see a problem from another perspective
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unnecessary constraints
tendency to impose our own rules that aren't part of the problem
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algorithm
methodical, step by step process for trying all possible solutions to a problem; if the solution exists, you are guaranteed to find it
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heuristics
"rule of thumb"; mental shortcut used in problem solving/decision making; quicker, more errors
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decomposition/forming subgoals
breaking down a problem into smaller parts
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using analogies
making a connection between the current problem and problem you've already solved; using similar strategy to solve
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incubation
setting the problem aside for a while and coming back to it later; leads to insight/breaking of mental set
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multiattribute decision making: attributes
factors to be considered in decision making
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multiattribute decision making: utility
personal value of each attribute; pros/cons; subjective
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availability heuristic
mental shortcut in decision making based on how readily/quickly relevant instances come to mind; based on headlines and recent experiences
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representative heuristic
basis of explaining stereotypes; mental shortcut where someone makes a decision based on how something fits their schema/prototype of a concept
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prototype
best example of a category (icon of schema)
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anchoring heuristic
tendency to adjust an initial estimate only slightly after being presented with additional information; tendency to base a judgement on an initial piece of information; first impressions are important
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recognition heuristic
if 1/2 objects are recognized, then people infer that the recognized object has higher value; quick decision making (mental shortcut) and/or decreased performance based on what's familiar
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overconfidence
tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs, judgements, and abilities that may lead to poor decision making and/or decreased performance
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belief perserverance
clinging to one's initials beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
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gambler's fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance even increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
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confirmation bias
the tendency to only seek, recall, or interpret information in ways that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs
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framing effect
decision making can be affected by how choices are structured
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phonemes
smaller elements of sound; cat = c/a/t
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morphemes
smallest unit of language that provides meaning; prefix + base + suffix
Studied by 16 people
