Studied by 16 people
cognition
thinking and mental processes
memory, decision making, problem solving, and language
encoding
bringing in information from environment and processing it
storage
holding information in memory over time
retrieval
locating and pulling information from memory into consciousness
attention
information most attended to will be encoded best and therefore remembered better (requires effort)
cocktail party effect
in a crowded environment, we can focus on one conversation while blocking out the rest; however, when your name/ or something relevant to you is said, your attention shifts
structural encoding
what the stimulus looks like
phonemic (acoustic) encoding
what the stimulus sounds like
semantic encoding
what the meaning of the stimulus is
elaborative encoding
making connections between new and old information
self-referent encoding
a form of elaborative encoding that involves making connections between new information and yourself
levels of processing model of memory #1
how deeply we encode information determines how well we recall information; deeper = better recall
what form of encoding are shallow?
structural encoding
which forms of encoding are deep?
phonemic and semantic
information processing model of memory #2
memory is made up of stores: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
atkinson and shiffen model/multistore model
short term memory
information selectively attended to is sent here from sensory memory
how is short term memory is primarily retained?
rehearsal/repetition and maintain rehearsal
what is the primary type of encoding in short term memory?
acoustic
what is the capacity of STM?
7+/-2; 5-9 items
what is the duration of STM?
20 seconds
chunking
grouping items; increases amount of information we can recall
long term memory capacity
unlimited
long term memory duration
forever
what is the primary type of encoding?
semantic (semantic + visual = best)
flashbulb memories
detailed, vivid memories of emotionally significant events; usually when we first heard the information
schemas
mental representations of people, objects, events, ideas, etc; created by experience (visual, auditory, and emotional)
parallel distributed processing model of memory #3
consists of an interconnected network of facts and mmmories where new information is added to the web. therefore it increases the interconnectedness and produces a better memory
retrieval cues
anything that aids in memory retrieval (explicity/implicit)
mnemonic devices
strategies for enhancing memory that involve unusual associations
acrostics
phrases
acronyms
a word formed by using first letters
link/story method
forming a mental image of items to be rememebered in a way that links them together
loci method
memory palace; taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
overlearning
continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it; overcoming the forgetting curve
context dependent learning
remember information best in the same/similar physical location
state dependent learning
remembering information best in the same physiological state as when we learned the information
mood congruency
information processing/recall is facilitated if a person's emotional state is similar to the tone of the information; or the state emotional state
distributed practice
studying in small chunks
massed practice
studying in large intervals
the serial position curve/effect
better recall of items at the beginning and end of the list; "U-shaped retention curve"
primacy effect/iconic memory
better recall of items at the beginning of a list
recency effect/echoic memory
better recall of items at the end of a list
tip of the tongue phenomenon
retrieval of incomplete information
constructive memory
using existing knowledge, schemas, and experiences to fill in the gap in information during encoding and retrieval; mandela effect
elizabeth loftus' research
subjects were shown a car crash
interrogator asks group 1 how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other; they said 41mph
ask 2nd group how fast were the cars going when they hit each other; they said 32 mph
misinformation effect
when memory is altered by misleading post event information; mood, framing
reality monitoring
the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (actual event) or internal source (thoughts and imagination)
source monitoring, monitoring error, and amnesia
making attributions about the origins of memory; who told me? where did I read it?; error - mistake; amnesia - don't know
destination memory
recalling to whom one has told what; error
forgetting curve - ebbinghaus
most forgetting happens within the first hour; after about 9 hours, memory is relatively constant; retention - proportion of material retained/remembered
recall
no cues
recognition
selection from an array of options
relearning/method of savings
less time/fewer trials are needed to memorize/remember information after having forgotten
ineffective encoding
you didn't forget,, you never encoded it in the first place
decay
gradual erosion of memory; fading because you didn't use it
retroactive interference
new/similar information impairs recall of old information
proactive interference
old information impairs learning/recall of new/similar information
PORN
Proactive Old interferes with new Retroactive New interferes with old
transfer appropriate processing model of memory #4
how well we remember information is based on how encoding matches retrieval
encoding specificity principle
best retrieval cues - those that match the way the information is encoded
motivated forgetting (repression)
pushing memories into the unconscious; psychodynamic approach
retrospective memory
remembering events from the past/ previously learned information
prospective memory
remembering to perform actions in the future
episodic memory
memories of specific events that happened while you were present; I remember when...
semantic memory
memories of factual information; generalized knowledge
procedural memory
memories of physical skills; cerebellum and basal ganglia
declarative memory (explicit memory)
factual information (semantic and episodic memories); hippocampus and frontal lobe
nondeclarative memory (implicit memory)
actions, skills, classically conditioned responses, emotional responses, procedural memories
long term potentiation
increase in synaptic strength; practicing/reviewing strengthens synaptic connections to improve memory
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory prior to onset of amnesia
anterograde amnesia
hippocampal damage; loss of memory of events occuring after the onset of amnesia; inability to form memories
which structures and neurotransmitters are involved in memory formation?
hippocampus, thalamus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum, basal ganglia, and association cortex; acetylcholine and glutamate
functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use; the inability to use objects in different ways
mental set
persistence in using problem-solving strategies that've worked in the past; barrier when it prevents you from seeing other ways of solving a problem
fixation
focusing on only one aspect of a problem; inability to see a problem from another perspective
unnecessary constraints
tendency to impose our own rules that aren't part of the problem
algorithm
methodical, step by step process for trying all possible solutions to a problem; if the solution exists, you are guaranteed to find it
heuristics
"rule of thumb"; mental shortcut used in problem solving/decision making; quicker, more errors
decomposition/forming subgoals
breaking down a problem into smaller parts
using analogies
making a connection between the current problem and problem you've already solved; using similar strategy to solve
incubation
setting the problem aside for a while and coming back to it later; leads to insight/breaking of mental set
multiattribute decision making: attributes
factors to be considered in decision making
multiattribute decision making: utility
personal value of each attribute; pros/cons; subjective
availability heuristic
mental shortcut in decision making based on how readily/quickly relevant instances come to mind; based on headlines and recent experiences
representative heuristic
basis of explaining stereotypes; mental shortcut where someone makes a decision based on how something fits their schema/prototype of a concept
prototype
best example of a category (icon of schema)
anchoring heuristic
tendency to adjust an initial estimate only slightly after being presented with additional information; tendency to base a judgement on an initial piece of information; first impressions are important
recognition heuristic
if 1/2 objects are recognized, then people infer that the recognized object has higher value; quick decision making (mental shortcut) and/or decreased performance based on what's familiar
overconfidence
tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs, judgements, and abilities that may lead to poor decision making and/or decreased performance
belief perserverance
clinging to one's initials beliefs after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
gambler's fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance even increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
confirmation bias
the tendency to only seek, recall, or interpret information in ways that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs
framing effect
decision making can be affected by how choices are structured
phonemes
smaller elements of sound; cat = c/a/t
morphemes
smallest unit of language that provides meaning; prefix + base + suffix
syntax
rules that govern the arrangement of words
semantics
rules that govern the meaning of words/phrases
surface structure
string of words
deep structure
underlying meanings
cooing
1.5-3 months; giggling and gurgling
