Studied by 4 people
memory
The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval
storage
process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
encoding
The processing of information into the memory system.
parallel processing
The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
-knowledge, skills, experiences
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
Proposed a model to explain our memory forming process
Sensory=>Short Term=>Long Term
working memory
-newer understanding of short term memory
-focus on consciousness, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information
-processing of retrieved long term memory
explicit memory
"declarative memory"
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information and of well-learned information
implicit memory
"non declarative memory"
retention independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
-a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
-a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
-if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
George A. Miller
proposed short term memory is limited to seven items
chunking
-organizing items into familiar, manageable units
-often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
distributed study or practice yields better long-term retention
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Hermann Ebbinghaus
"those who learn quickly forget quickly"
Deep processing
-encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words
-tends to yield the best retention
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
mood congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
long term potentiation
-an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
-believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Eric kandel
observed synaptic changes during learning in the sending neurons of California sea slugs
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
An inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Elizabeth Loftus
experimented and showed how eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories after a crime or accident
source amnesia
-attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
-this, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories
deja vu
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Robert Sternberg
identified 5 components of creativity
divergent thinking
a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems
convergent thinking
a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
cognition
thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
heuristic
-A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
-usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Wolfgang Kohler
conducted experiments on monkeys that showed humans are not the only ones that display insight
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
-worked on representativeness and availability heuristics
-showed how generally helpful shortcuts may lead even smart people into making dumb decisions
representativeness heuristic
-judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
-may lead one to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
-estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
-if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
belief perserverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
framing
-the way an issue is posed
-how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Benjamin Lee Whorf
contended that language determines the way we think
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Wernicke's area
-controls language reception
-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression
-usually in left temporal lobe
Carl Wernicke
discovered that damage in the left temporal lobe causes people to speak meaningless words
Broca's area
-controls language expression
-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech
Paul Broca
reported that damage to an area in the left frontal lobe caused speaking problems but did not affect singing familiar songs or speech comprehension
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Noam Chomsky
"universal grammar"
argued that all languages share basic elements
telegraphic speech
"go car"
early speech, like telegram using mostly nouns and verbs
two word stage
beginning at age 2, child speaks mostly in two word statements
one word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant makes incoherent sounds
grammar
-in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
-semantics=rules for deriving meaning
-syntax=rules for combining words to form sentences
morpheme
-in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
-may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Steven Pinker
"We sometimes listen to others make noises as they exhale for hours, because those hisses and squeaks contain information."
language
spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combined to communicate meaning
Note 
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