Origins of the Modern World Midterm

Roman Empire (476)

an ancient Mediterranean superpower that existed from 27 BC to 476 AD, known for its advanced military, engineering, legal, and cultural achievements, until it fell to invading barbarian tribes and other internal factors.

Constantine (306-337)

a Roman Emperor who ruled from 306 to 337 AD, known for his military victories, religious tolerance, and conversion to Christianity, which led to the religion's widespread acceptance within the empire.

Barbarian Invasions/Migrations

Celts: Ireland/Scotland
Anglos & Saxons: England
Franks: France
Goths - visi/ostro
Vandals: North Africa
Huns: Hungary

Gaul

North West Empire

Arab Conquest of Spain (711)

a military campaign led by Muslim forces from North Africa, which resulted in the establishment of a Muslim-ruled state in the Iberian Peninsula that lasted until the late 15th century.

3 general divisions

Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)
Arabic World
Latin Christendom: lack of cohesion

Cartography

is the art and science of creating and producing maps, both for navigation and for the representation of geographic information.

Charlemagne (768-814)

King of Franks (768-814)
Holy Roman Emperor (800-814): honorary title given by pope

Aachen

is a city in western Germany known for its historical and cultural significance as the former imperial city of Charlemagne.

Partible inheritance

all sons inherit equally

Feudalism

was a social, economic, and political system based on the exchange of land for loyalty and service, prevalent in medieval Europe.

Scriptoria

a copying room in a monastery for use by scribes in the Middle Ages.

Holy Roman Empire

was a complex of territories and states in central Europe ruled by a succession of emperors from 962 to 1806, which had a loose political structure and was based on a combination of religious and secular authority.

Fiefs

a source of income granted to a person (called a vassal) by his lord in exchange for his services.

The church (before 1500)

Faith vs. Action | Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
Church vs. State | City of God (420)

Investiture controversy (late 11th century)

a power struggle between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor over the appointment of bishops and other church officials, which ultimately resulted in the Concordat of Worms in 1122, granting the Church the exclusive right to appoint its own officials.

Gregory VII (pope 1073-1085)

known for his efforts to reform the Church, including the implementation of celibacy for priests and his conflict with Emperor Henry IV over the power to appoint bishops.

Henry IV (HRE 1056-1106)

known for his conflict with Pope Gregory VII over the power to appoint bishops and investiture, which ultimately led to his excommunication and the Investiture Controversy.

Crusades (1095-1300)

a series of religious wars launched by European Christians in the 11th through 13th centuries to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control and expand Christianity's influence.

Avignon Papacy (1308-1378)

was a period in the 14th century when the papacy moved from Rome to Avignon, France, and was under the influence of the French monarchy, leading to a division within the Church and a loss of prestige for the papacy.

Boniface VIII (1294-1303)

a medieval Pope who ruled from 1294 to 1303, known for his conflicts with the French king Philip IV over the power of the papacy and for issuing the Unam Sanctam, a declaration of papal supremacy.

Philip IV (1285-1314)

was a King of France who ruled from 1285 to 1314, known for his conflict with Pope Boniface VIII over the power of the papacy and for his suppression of the Knights Templar.

Aftermath of Avignon Papacy:

1378-1409 \= 2 popes
Council of Pisa (1409) - a failed attempt to end the Western Schism by electing a new Pope to replace both the Roman Pope and the Avignon Pope, resulting in the existence of three rival Popes instead of two.
1409-1415 (3 popes)

Council of Constance (1414-1417)

was a major church council held in the 15th century that ended the Western Schism by electing Pope Martin V and bringing about significant reforms within the Catholic Church.

Jan Hus (dies 1415)

was a Czech priest, theologian, and reformer in the 14th and 15th centuries who criticized the corruption and wealth of the Catholic Church, was excommunicated, and eventually burned at the stake for heresy.

\[Agricultural advance 1000-1300]

Heavy plow (≠ scratch plow)
Horse collar (≠ noose)
3-field system (≠ 2-field)

First Inflation (1250-1347)

a period of economic instability in Europe from 1250 to 1347, characterized by high inflation, population growth, and agricultural expansion, leading to a rise in prices and changes in social and economic structures.

Fallow

peasants usually divided their farmland into two or three large fields. Each year, only one or two fields were planted. The other was left fallow, or unplanted. The following year, the fallow was planted.

Renaissance

was a period in European history from the 14th to the 17th century characterized by a renewed interest in classical learning, art, and culture, and marked by significant advancements in science, philosophy, and literature.

Humanism

veneration for classical past, individualism, secularism.

Studia humanitatis

refers to the Renaissance educational program that emphasized the study of grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy to create well-rounded, knowledgeable individuals.

Renaissance Background:

Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) | grammar, rhetoric, poetry
Quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, music, geometry) | history, moral philosophy

Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374)

was an Italian scholar, poet, and humanist in the 14th century, who is credited with the development of the sonnet form and his influential works in shaping the cultural and intellectual movement of the Renaissance.

Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444)

was an Italian humanist, historian, and Chancellor of Florence in the 15th century, known for his influential works on the history of Florence and his promotion of classical education and humanist values.

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457)

was an Italian humanist, philosopher, and philologist in the 15th century, known for his critical analysis of the Denotation of Constantine and his contributions to the development of textual criticism and the study of Latin literature.

"The Denotation of Constantine" (4th century)

a forged 4th century document that granted the Pope supreme authority over the Western Roman Empire, which was used for centuries as a basis for papal claims of political and religious power.

Nicole Machiavelli (1469-1527)

was an Italian Renaissance diplomat, philosopher, and writer in the 15th and 16th centuries, best known for his political treatise "The Prince" and his ideas on political power and leadership.

The Prince (1513)

a political treatise written by Niccolò Machiavelli in 1513, which examines the acquisition and maintenance of political power through practical advice to rulers, often characterized by its pragmatic and amoral approach.

Why did the Protestant Reformation happen when it did (early 16th century)

There were several factors that contributed to the Protestant Reformation occurring in the early 16th century, including the corruption and abuses within the Catholic Church, the rise of humanism and the Renaissance, the printing press which made the dissemination of new ideas easier, and the political climate in Europe, including the emergence of nation-states that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. Additionally, the personal beliefs and actions of key figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin played a significant role in the emergence of the Protestant Reformation.

At what point did Martin Luther realize that the church could not be reformed from within? At what point did he commit to schism?

Martin Luther's realization that the church could not be reformed from within and his commitment to schism were gradual processes that developed over time. Luther's initial intention was to reform the Catholic Church from within, and his criticisms of its practices and doctrines were initially directed at specific issues such as indulgences and the authority of the Pope. However, as his ideas spread and his conflicts with church authorities intensified, Luther became increasingly disillusioned with the Church and its hierarchy. The turning point for Luther was likely the Diet of Worms in 1521, where he was called to recant his views but refused, famously stating, "Here I stand, I can do no other, God help me." This defiance led to his excommunication from the Catholic Church, and he subsequently founded his own church, which became known as the Lutheran Church. Thus, while there was no specific moment when Luther realized the impossibility of reforming the Church from within or committed to schism, his experiences and conflicts over the years led to his eventual break with the Catholic Church and the creation of a new religious movement.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

was a German theologian and religious reformer who played a key role in the Protestant Reformation, challenging the authority and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.

Augustinian Monk

is a member of the religious order of St. Augustine, founded in the 13th century, who follow the Rule of St. Augustine and place a strong emphasis on study and contemplation.

University of Wittenberg

was a center of learning founded in 1502 in the town of Wittenberg, Germany, which became an important site for the Protestant Reformation due to the presence of figures such as Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon.

Sola fide

meaning "faith alone," is a key doctrine of the Protestant Reformation which holds that salvation is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ alone, rather than through good works or other means.

Sola scriptura

meaning "Scripture alone," is a principle of the Protestant Reformation which holds that the Bible is the sole authoritative source of Christian doctrine and practice.

Indulgences

were pardons granted by the Catholic Church for sins committed, with the belief that they could reduce the amount of time a soul spent in purgatory.

The 95 Theses (1517)

were a set of arguments against the sale of indulgences and corruption within the Catholic Church, posted by Martin Luther on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517.

Frederick of Saxony (1486-1525)

was a powerful German prince and one of Martin Luther's most important supporters during the early years of the Protestant Reformation.

Disputation at Leipzig (1519)

was a theological debate between Martin Luther and representatives of the Roman Catholic Church regarding the nature of salvation and the authority of the pope.

Relics

are objects that are considered to be sacred or holy due to their connection to a religious or historical figure or event.

Diet of Worms (1521)

was an imperial council held in 1521, where Martin Luther was declared a heretic and his teachings were condemned by the Catholic Church.

\[Wartburg]

a castle located in central Germany, known for its association with the legend of Saint George and as the place where Martin Luther took refuge and translated the New Testament into German.

Medieval T Map

also known as a "T-O map," is a type of world map divided into three parts with the letter T representing the intersection of Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Colonial System

a closed economic system designed to benefit the mother country.

Henry Tudor (Henry VII, 1485-1509)

was the first Tudor king of England, who gained the throne after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485.

Star Chamber

was an English court of law that operated from the late 15th century to the mid-17th century, known for its secretive and arbitrary nature and the use of torture to extract confessions.

Louis XI (1461-1483)

was a King of France known for his Machiavellian tactics and centralization of power during his reign from 1461 to 1483.

Estates General

was a legislative body in pre-revolutionary France consisting of representatives from three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people.

Ferdinand & Isabella

were the Catholic Monarchs whose marriage united Spain, they completed the Reconquista, sponsored Christopher Columbus's voyages to the New World, and instituted the Spanish Inquisition.

2nd inflation (1450-1600)

was a period of significant inflation in Europe that was fueled by a combination of factors including population growth, urbanization, and increased trade and commerce.

Tudor Dynasty

was a royal house of England that ruled from 1485 to 1603, producing monarchs such as Henry VII, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth I.

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

was the King of England from 1509 to 1547, known for his six marriages and his role in the English Reformation.

Catherine of Aragon

was Henry VIII's first wife and mother of Mary I.

Mary I (1516-1558)

also known as "Bloody Mary," was Queen of England and Ireland from 1553 until her death in 1558, during which she attempted to reverse the English Reformation and restore Catholicism to England.

Anne Boleyn

was the second wife of King Henry VIII and the mother of Queen Elizabeth I.

Elizabeth I (1533-1603)

was the queen of England and Ireland from 1558 until her death in 1603, known for her strong leadership, religious tolerance, and patronage of the arts.

Jane Seymour

was the third wife of Henry VIII and the mother of his only male heir, King Edward VI.

Edward VI (1547-1553)

was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour who ruled England from the age of nine, continuing his father's Protestant Reformation policies.

Clement VII (1523-1534)

was a Pope who served from 1523 to 1534 and was known for his involvement in the political and religious turmoil of the time, including his refusal to annul Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Act of Supremacy (1534)

an English law passed in 1534 under Henry VIII, which declared the monarch to be the supreme head of the Church of England and thus broke ties with the Roman Catholic Church.

Episcopalianism

a Christian denomination that emphasizes the role of bishops as the successors of the apostles and follows the Book of Common Prayer as its liturgical guide.

The Six Articles (1539)

a set of English laws passed in 1539 under Henry VIII, which reaffirmed Catholic doctrine on transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, and other religious practices while rejecting Protestant beliefs.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

was a Swiss priest and theologian who led the Reformation in Switzerland and was a major influence on the development of the Reformed tradition.

Anabaptists

a radical Protestant group that emerged in the 16th century, advocating for adult baptism and the separation of church and state.