AP Psych Unit VII Memory, Thinking, Learning

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96 Terms

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Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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Episodic Memory

experience, something happens

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Flashbulb Memory

clarity of memory of surprising, significant events

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Generic Memory

general knowledge

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Procedural Memory

skills

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Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

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Storage

the retention of encoded material over time

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Sensory Memory

brief retention of sensory info

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Short Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

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Long Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

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Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency) and well learned information (word meanings); can be learned

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Effortful Processing

requires attention and conscious effort

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Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness and encode it for storage

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Herman Ebbinghaus

more times practiced on the first day, fewer repetitions to relearn the next day; no meaning, forgotten almost immediately

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Spacing Effect

distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice

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Serial Position Effect

tendency to recall best the first (primary effect) and the last (recency effect) items in a list

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Next In Line Effect

when you are next, you focus on your performance unable to recall what was said just before you

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Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

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Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

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Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meanings of words

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Imagery

mental pictures, a powerful and effortful processing especially when combined with semantic encoding

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Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Chunking

organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically, like the use of acronyms

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Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

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Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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Echoic Memory

momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli; can be recalled within 3-4 seconds

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Long Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus reveals activity when forming memory

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Storage

no one spot in the brain; when learning occurs, more neurotransmitters are released (serotonin)

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Synaptic Changes - Long Term Potentiation

increase in synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

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Kandel and Schwartz

when learning occurs, more serotonin is released into synapses

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Strong Emotions

make for stronger memories; some stress hormones boost learning and retention

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Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare

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Implicit Memory

retention without conscious recollection

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Recall

the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness

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Recognition

the ability to identify previously learned items

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Relearning

amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information

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Priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations on memory

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Reconstructive Memory

memory without remembering; making up a memory

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Deja Vu

cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

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Mood Congruent Memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

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State Dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in the same state

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Forgetting

can result from failure to retrieve information from long term memory

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Absent Mindedness

inattention to detail

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Transience

(storage decay) unused information fades over time, then levels off

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Blocking

(retrieval failure) cannot get information out

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Misattribution

confusing the source of the information

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Suggestibility

lingering effects of misinformation

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Bias

(motivated forgetting) revise past

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Persistence

unwanted memories

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Interference

learning some items may disrupt the retrieval of other info

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Proactive Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info

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Retroactive Interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

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Positive Transfer

sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information

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Forgetting

can occur at any memory stage as we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

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Amnesia

loss of memory usually due to brain damage

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Retrograde Amnesia

can’t remember accident

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Anterograde Amnesia

can’t form new memories

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Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

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Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

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False Memory Syndrome

condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic event

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Cognition

mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information

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Cognitive Psychology

the study of these mental activities

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Symbol

an object that stands for something else

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Concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people

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Prototype

the best example of a category

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Problem Solving

identify problem → gather information → try a solution → evaluate results

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Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

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Heuristic

rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

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Representativeness Heuristic

a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype

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Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory

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Insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

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Mental Set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way; especially in a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

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Functional Fixedness

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

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Belief Bias

the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning

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Belief Perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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Confirmation Bias

need to confirm our ideas

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Fixation

inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

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Overconfident

tendency to be more confident than correct

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Framing

the way an issue is posed

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Language

our spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

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Phonemes

the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language

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Morphemes

the smallest unit that carries meaning in a language (can be part of a word like a suffix or a prefix)

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Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning in language

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Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

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Crying, Cooing, Babbling Stage

not considered a true language; do not use symbols with specific meanings

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Crying

verbal expression for newborn infants (gets attention)

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Cooing

2nd month, ooh and ahs, seems to be an expression of pleasure

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Babbling

6th month, sounds of speech, 9-10 months pick out phonemes used by people around them

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Words

slowly develop, 3-4 months - first word

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Overextension

use words incorrectly

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Development of Grammar

use one word for several ideas

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Overregularization

learned to add an “ed” for past tense

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B.F. Skinner

explained language development through social learning theory: imitation, reinforcement, and association

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Noam Chomsky

inborn universal grammar; acquire language too fast for it to be learned

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Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky’s learning box inside our brains that enable us to learn any human language

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Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity

the idea that language determines the way we think