AP Psych Unit VII Memory, Thinking, Learning

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Episodic Memory

experience, something happens

Flashbulb Memory

clarity of memory of surprising, significant events

Generic Memory

general knowledge

Procedural Memory

skills

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded material over time

Sensory Memory

brief retention of sensory info

Short Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

Long Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency) and well learned information (word meanings); can be learned

Effortful Processing

requires attention and conscious effort

Rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness and encode it for storage

Herman Ebbinghaus

more times practiced on the first day, fewer repetitions to relearn the next day; no meaning, forgotten almost immediately

Spacing Effect

distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice

Serial Position Effect

tendency to recall best the first (primary effect) and the last (recency effect) items in a list

Next In Line Effect

when you are next, you focus on your performance unable to recall what was said just before you

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meanings of words

Imagery

mental pictures, a powerful and effortful processing especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Chunking

organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically, like the use of acronyms

Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli; can be recalled within 3-4 seconds

Long Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus reveals activity when forming memory

Storage

no one spot in the brain; when learning occurs, more neurotransmitters are released (serotonin)

Synaptic Changes - Long Term Potentiation

increase in synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Kandel and Schwartz

when learning occurs, more serotonin is released into synapses

Strong Emotions

make for stronger memories; some stress hormones boost learning and retention

Explicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare

Implicit Memory

retention without conscious recollection

Recall

the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness

Recognition

the ability to identify previously learned items

Relearning

amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information

Priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations on memory

Reconstructive Memory

memory without remembering; making up a memory

Deja Vu

cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

Mood Congruent Memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

State Dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in the same state

Forgetting

can result from failure to retrieve information from long term memory

Absent Mindedness

inattention to detail

Transience

(storage decay) unused information fades over time, then levels off

Blocking

(retrieval failure) cannot get information out

Misattribution

confusing the source of the information

Suggestibility

lingering effects of misinformation

Bias

(motivated forgetting) revise past

Persistence

unwanted memories

Interference

learning some items may disrupt the retrieval of other info

Proactive Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info

Retroactive Interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

Positive Transfer

sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information

Forgetting

can occur at any memory stage as we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Amnesia

loss of memory usually due to brain damage

Retrograde Amnesia

can’t remember accident

Anterograde Amnesia

can’t form new memories

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

False Memory Syndrome

condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic event

Cognition

mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information

Cognitive Psychology

the study of these mental activities

Symbol

an object that stands for something else

Concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people

Prototype

the best example of a category

Problem Solving

identify problem → gather information → try a solution → evaluate results

Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristic

rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

Representativeness Heuristic

a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory

Insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Mental Set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way; especially in a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Functional Fixedness

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

Belief Bias

the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning

Belief Perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Confirmation Bias

need to confirm our ideas

Fixation

inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

Overconfident

tendency to be more confident than correct

Framing

the way an issue is posed

Language

our spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning

Phonemes

the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language

Morphemes

the smallest unit that carries meaning in a language (can be part of a word like a suffix or a prefix)

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning in language

Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Crying, Cooing, Babbling Stage

not considered a true language; do not use symbols with specific meanings

Crying

verbal expression for newborn infants (gets attention)

Cooing

2nd month, ooh and ahs, seems to be an expression of pleasure

Babbling

6th month, sounds of speech, 9-10 months pick out phonemes used by people around them

Words

slowly develop, 3-4 months - first word

Overextension

use words incorrectly

Development of Grammar

use one word for several ideas

Overregularization

learned to add an “ed” for past tense

B.F. Skinner

explained language development through social learning theory: imitation, reinforcement, and association

Noam Chomsky

inborn universal grammar; acquire language too fast for it to be learned

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky’s learning box inside our brains that enable us to learn any human language

Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity

the idea that language determines the way we think