Studied by 8 people
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Episodic Memory
experience, something happens
Flashbulb Memory
clarity of memory of surprising, significant events
Generic Memory
general knowledge
Procedural Memory
skills
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
Storage
the retention of encoded material over time
Sensory Memory
brief retention of sensory info
Short Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
Long Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency) and well learned information (word meanings); can be learned
Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness and encode it for storage
Herman Ebbinghaus
more times practiced on the first day, fewer repetitions to relearn the next day; no meaning, forgotten almost immediately
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice
Serial Position Effect
tendency to recall best the first (primary effect) and the last (recency effect) items in a list
Next In Line Effect
when you are next, you focus on your performance unable to recall what was said just before you
Visual Encoding
the encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Semantic Encoding
the encoding of meanings of words
Imagery
mental pictures, a powerful and effortful processing especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Chunking
organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically, like the use of acronyms
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli; can be recalled within 3-4 seconds
Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus reveals activity when forming memory
Storage
no one spot in the brain; when learning occurs, more neurotransmitters are released (serotonin)
Synaptic Changes - Long Term Potentiation
increase in synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Kandel and Schwartz
when learning occurs, more serotonin is released into synapses
Strong Emotions
make for stronger memories; some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare
Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection
Recall
the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness
Recognition
the ability to identify previously learned items
Relearning
amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations on memory
Reconstructive Memory
memory without remembering; making up a memory
Deja Vu
cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
Mood Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
State Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in the same state
Forgetting
can result from failure to retrieve information from long term memory
Absent Mindedness
inattention to detail
Transience
(storage decay) unused information fades over time, then levels off
Blocking
(retrieval failure) cannot get information out
Misattribution
confusing the source of the information
Suggestibility
lingering effects of misinformation
Bias
(motivated forgetting) revise past
Persistence
unwanted memories
Interference
learning some items may disrupt the retrieval of other info
Proactive Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info
Retroactive Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information
Positive Transfer
sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information
Forgetting
can occur at any memory stage as we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Amnesia
loss of memory usually due to brain damage
Retrograde Amnesia
can’t remember accident
Anterograde Amnesia
can’t form new memories
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic event
Cognition
mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information
Cognitive Psychology
the study of these mental activities
Symbol
an object that stands for something else
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
Prototype
the best example of a category
Problem Solving
identify problem → gather information → try a solution → evaluate results
Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic
rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
Representativeness Heuristic
a rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory
Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
Mental Set
tendency to approach a problem in a particular way; especially in a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Belief Bias
the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Confirmation Bias
need to confirm our ideas
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
Overconfident
tendency to be more confident than correct
Framing
the way an issue is posed
Language
our spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phonemes
the smallest distinctive sound unit in a language
Morphemes
the smallest unit that carries meaning in a language (can be part of a word like a suffix or a prefix)
Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning in language
Syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Crying, Cooing, Babbling Stage
not considered a true language; do not use symbols with specific meanings
Crying
verbal expression for newborn infants (gets attention)
Cooing
2nd month, ooh and ahs, seems to be an expression of pleasure
Babbling
6th month, sounds of speech, 9-10 months pick out phonemes used by people around them
Words
slowly develop, 3-4 months - first word
Overextension
use words incorrectly
Development of Grammar
use one word for several ideas
Overregularization
learned to add an “ed” for past tense
B.F. Skinner
explained language development through social learning theory: imitation, reinforcement, and association
Noam Chomsky
inborn universal grammar; acquire language too fast for it to be learned
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky’s learning box inside our brains that enable us to learn any human language
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity
the idea that language determines the way we think
Note 
Flashcard (108)