g7.) APUSH 4 The Age of Jefferson

Transition of Power

After his election, Jefferson wanted the transition from a Federalist-dominated government to an Anti-Federalist government to be peaceful.

Thus, he said, “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.”

Jefferson’s Presidency

Jefferson attempted to win the trust of Federalists by maintaining the National Bank and Hamilton’s debt-repayment plan.

In foreign policy, he maintained Washington and Adam’s neutral policies.

Jefferson was helped his fellow DRs by adhering to the principle of limited central government:

* reduced size of military, eliminated some federal jobs, repealed excise taxes (whiskey), and lowered national debt.
* only placed DRs in his cabinet to avoid infighting

The Louisiana Territory

Large and mostly unexplored, the territory’s most appealing aspect (commercially) was the New Orleans port.

It was owned by Spain for some time, but they secretly gave it to Napoleon, who wanted to restore the French colonies in the Americas. However, he had to give up his plan because…

* needed to concentrate resources on fighting England
* rebellion in Santo Domingo resulted in heavy French losses

US interest in the Mississippi River

During Jefferson’s presidency, the frontiers extended into the Indiana Territory. Settlers needed transportation through rivers.

When Spanish officials closed the port to New Orleans, settlers were alarmed. This revoked the *right of deposit* granted in the Pinckney Treaty.

People clamored for government action. Jefferson worried about the economic and foreign problems that would come with the closing of the port.

Negotiations, Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson sent ministers to France who were meant to offer up to $10 million for the New Orleans strip. If they failed, the ministers were instructed to seek an alliance with Britain.

Napoleon’s ministers were seeking funds for the war, so they offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. The ministers quickly accepted (**Louisiana Purchase**).

Constitutional Predicament, Louisiana Purchase

Most, including Jefferson, approved of the Louisiana Purchase. However, no clause in the Constitution stated that a president could purchase foreign land.

Jefferson set aside his strict-interpretation beliefs and submitted the purchase agreement to the Senate, arguing that it was similar to making a treaty. They quickly ratified the purchase.

Consequences, Louisiana Purchase

The purchase more than doubled the size of the US and removed the European threat along the frontier. This strengthened Jefferson’s hopes for an agrarian society.

It showed Jefferson to be strong and Federalists to be weak.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

Jefferson persuaded Congress to fund a scientific exploration of the Louisiana Territory. Led by Lewis and Clark, they completed an expedition around the area, granting the government with scientific and geographic knowledge of the region. It also helped with relations with Native Americans as well as more maps and routes for fur trappers and settlers.

3 Branches of Government

Since the DRs had control over the executive and legislative branches, Federalists only had control over the judicial branch.

This annoyed Jefferson.

John Marshall

The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall, was a pain in the butt for Jefferson. He contributed to many landmark cases that generally strengthened the central government at the expense of states’ rights.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

After Jefferson won the election, Adams made a series of “**midnight appointments**” which were commissions to Federalists judges. Basically, Adams was trying to strengthen the Federalists’ role in government before he lost power.

Jefferson ordered that these commissions not be delivered. William Marbury sued for his commission.

Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission due to the Judiciary Act of 1789. However, Marshall also ruled that the Act was Unconstitutional, so Marbury did not receive his commission.

By ruling that an Act was unconstitutional, Marshall established the **doctrine of judicial review**. The Supreme Court could then decided wether an act of Congress or the president was allowed by the Constitution and could overrule the actions of the other two branches.

Judicial Impeachments

Jefferson tried his best to overturn past Federalist measures and appointments. He suspended the Alien and Sedition Acts.

He also supported a campaign of impeachment, hoping that it would remove some Federalist judges. A judge for impeached for mental imbalance. Another was impeached but then acquitted. Overall, the impeachment campaign was a failure.

However, the impeachments caused judges to be more cautious.

Jefferson’s Reelection

Jefferson won his reelection by a lot. His second term was marked by growing difficulties and was more hectic than his first.

Aaron Burr

Burr was not nominated for a second term as vice president. He decided to do his own stuff, which included threatening to break up the union and kill Hammy.

Federalist Conspiracy

Burr formed a secret pact with some radical Federalists. He planned to become governor of New York and join New England in seceding from the nation.

He lost the election and the movement ended.

Duel with Hammy

Angered by an insulting remark attributed to Hamilton, Burr challenged him to a duel and shot him.Federalists hated Burr afterwards.

Trial for Treason, Burr

Burr wanted to take Mexico from Spain and possibly unite it with Louisiana under his rule.

Once Jefferson learned of this conspiracy, he ordered Burr to be arrested and tried for treason. A jury acquitted him because he had not done any “overt acts.”

Barbary Pirates

To protect US merchant ships from being seized by Barbary pirates, Washington and Adams had agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary governments. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher tribute from Jefferson.

Jefferson refused to pay and sent a small fleet of the Navy. Fighting lasted for 4 years. Although the US did not gain a decisive victory, it offered some protection to US ships.

Challenges to US Neutrality

The Napoleonic wars dominated the politics of Europe. This affected the US economy because the French and British were blockading one another’s ports.

The British also would capture US sailores and force them to serve in the British Navy.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

Near Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the US warship Chesapeake. Three Americans were killed and four others were forced to join the British Navy.

Anti-British sentiment grew, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson instead used diplomacy and economic pressure to handle the conflict.

Embargo Act (1807)

Instead of warring with Britain following the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act. It would prohibit American merchant ships from failing to foreign ports.

Since the US was Britain’s largest trading partner, Jefferson hoped that they would stop being mean. However, this did more harm than good. The US was hit hard by the loss of trade while Britain substituted US goods with South American ones.

Recognizing that he had failed, Jefferson repealed the act.

Madison’s Presidency

Jefferson followed Washington’s tradition of 2 terms. The DR party nominated Jefferson’s close friend, James Madison.

The Election of 1808

Because he was a leader in writing the Constitution and Bill of Rights, he was widely respected. However, he was also a weak speaker, had a poor temperament, and lacked Jefferson’s political skills.

Other factions of the DR party nominated other candidates, but Madison won. The Federalists were successful in filling some seats in Congress.

Commercial Warfare

Madison’s presidency began with the same problems at the end of Jefferson’s. Unlike Jefferson, he was willing to take the US into war.

Nonintercourse Act of 1809

Madison wanted to end the economic hardships caused by the embargo act and also maintain the US’s rights as a neutral nation.

The Act provided that the US could trade with all nations other than Britain and France.

Macon’s Bill No.2 (1810)

Economic hardships continued. Nathaniel Macon introduced a bill that restored US trade with Britain and France.

If a nation respected the US’s neutral rights, they would stop trading with their opponents.

Napoleon’s Deception

After hearing of Macon’s Bill, Napoleon announced that he would respect the US’s neutral rights, so the US stopped trading with Britain. However, he had been lying and continued to seize US merchant ships.

The War of 1812

War between Britain and the US.

Causes, The War of 1812

War was caused by British violation of the US’s neutral rights and troubles with the British along the Western Frontier.

Also…

* Free seas and trade
* Frontier pressures
* War Hawks

Free Seas and Trade

Because the US was a trading nation, they relied of trade. However, French and Britain had no intention of respecting neutral rights while they were fighting.

Public opinion turned against Britain because…

* revolutionary war (against Britain, French support)
* DRs supported the overthrow of the monarchy
* British violations of neutral rights were worse

Frontier Pressures

American settlers wanted to enter British Canada and Spanish Florida.

American settlers had been encroaching on Native American lands. The **Shawnee brothers** attempted to unite the tribes in the area. Americans became suspicious and convinced the governor of the Indiana territory to fight back.

In the **Battle of Tippecanoe**, the Americans destroyed the Shawnee headquarters, putting an end to the Indian confederacy.

The British had provided only a little aid, but they were still blamed for instigating the rebellion.

War Hawks

New, young, DRs along the frontier were known as War Hawks because of their eagerness to enter war with Britain.

They had a large impact on the HoR,. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun argued that war was the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and end Indian rebellions.

Declaration of War

Madison was persuaded into seeking a declaration of war against Britain.

Ironically, Britain had already agreed to suspend its naval blockade, but news of it reached Congress after the declaration.

A Divided Nation

Neither Congress nor the American people were united in support of the war. Northern states were generally against the war whereas southern and border states were for.

Election of 1812

Madison won reelection.

The voter distribution followed the pro/anti-war trends, with Southern and Westerners supporting Madison and Northerners against.

Opposition to the War

Americans who opposed the war viewed it as “**Mr. Madison’s War.**” New England merchants, Federalists, and “**Quids**” (old DRs) were most outspoken.

Merchants were making profit following the repeal of the Embargo Act, so they didn’t want the war to inconvenience them.

Protestants were also more sympathetic with the Protestant British than the Catholic French.

Federalists viewed it as a scheme to conquer Canada and Florida.

Quids felt that it violated the DR principle of limited federal power and the maintenance of peace.

Military Defeats and Naval Victories

Britain had a strong naval power. Madison’s military strategists bet on…

* Napoleon’s continued success in Europe
* US land campaign against Canada

Invasion of Canada

A poorly equipped American army launched an invasion of Canada. They were easily repulsed by the British defenders. An American raid and burning of government buildings in York (Toronto) only caused retaliation by the British.

Naval Battles

The US navy achieved some notable victories due to superior shipbuilding and the work of American sailors.

The US warship Constitution (Old Ironsides) was able to defeat and sink a British ship near Nova Scotia. American privateers also captured British merchant ships.

However, the British navy managed to establish a blockade, which crippled trade and fishing.

The US won a series of naval battles against Britain on Lake Erie, the Thames River, and Lake Champlain. Thus, the British were forced to abandon their plan to invade New York and New England.

Chesapeake Campaign

By 1814, the defeat of Napoleon meant that Britain could invest more resources into its fight against the US.

They marched through the capitol, burning the White House, the Capitol, and other buildings.

They tried to take Baltimore, but US soldiers held out.

Southern Campaign

US troops in the South were commanded by Andrew Jackson. At the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, they defeated the Creek nation, eliminating the Natives and opening the land to white settlers.

Jackson also prevented British forces from taking control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans. African Americans and the Creoles were part of the US force.

However, the battle was also pointless since the treaty ending the war had already been signed.

Treaty of Ghent (1815)

Britain didn’t want to continue fighting after having fought with Napoleon for over a decade. The US also realized that they could not win the war.

American peace commissioners traveled to Ghent, Belgium, to discuss terms of peace with British diplomats. They agreed to stop fighting and returned all territory to how it was prewar, including the Canadian-American boundary.

The treaty of ratified and the war ended in a stalemate.

The Hartford Convention

A special convention was held in Hartford, Connecticut.

New England states threatened to secede because the opposed the war and the DR government. Radical Federalists urged that the Constitution be amended so that secession could be voted upon.

The convention dealt with this issue. Delegates from the New England states did not want to secede but just to limit the powers of the DRs in the South and West. The adopted proposals include an agreement that 2/3 votes of both houses as needed to declare war.

Shortly after, news of Jackson’s victories reached the public. This weakened the Federalists.

Legacy, War of 1812

From Madison’s POV, the war achieved non of its original goals. But there were still large impacts:

* Having survived 2 wars with Britain, the US was respected by other nations
* The US accepted Canada as part of the British empire
* Federalists party weakened significantly
* Nullification and secession would pop back up in the South
* Without European support, Native Americans were forced to surrender their lands
* Due to the blockades, the US became more self-sufficient
* War Heroes such as Andrew Jackson gained good reputations
* Feelings of nationalism grew and people felt that the future of the US lay in the West, not overseas