Unit 1 - Cognition

Explicit memory

Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (Also called declarative memory).

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events’ one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

Semantic Memory

Explicit Memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non declarative memory).

Procedural Memory

the "knowing how" to do things, storing implicit memories for skills and habits that can be performed automatically without conscious thought

Prospective Memory

the ability to remember to perform an action in the future

Long-term Potentiation

An increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Working Memory Model

A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Central Executive

The part of the working memory model that directs attention and coordinates information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological Loop

A component of the working memory model responsible for processing and storing auditory information and verbal material.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of the working memory model that handles visual and spatial information, enabling the temporary storage and manipulation of visual data.

Multistore Model of Memory

Theoretical framework proposing that memory consists of three distinct stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.allowing for the brief retention of visual information.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Short-term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

Long-term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Levels of Processing Model

A theory that explains how information is processed and retained based on the depth of cognitive processing, ranging from shallow to deep levels.

Structural encoding

A type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of the stimulus, such as the appearance of words.

Phonemic encoding

A type of processing that focuses on the sound of words, which enhances memory retention through auditory features.

Semantic Encoding

A type of deep processing that involves understanding the meaning of words and connecting them to other concepts, significantly improving memory retention.

Mnemonic

A memory aid or strategy that uses associations to enhance the retrieval of information.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves visualizing a familiar place and associating items to be remembered with specific locations within that place, facilitating recall.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Massed Practice

A study technique in which information is studied in a short period of time, often leading to quick but less durable learning compared to spaced practice.

Serial Positioning Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

Primary Effect

The tendency to better recall the first items presented in a sequence, often due to enhanced encoding into long-term memory.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better recall the last items presented in a sequence, often due to their availability in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory strategy that involves actively processing and connecting new information to existing knowledge to enhance memory retention.

Maintenance Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to keep it in short-term memory without deep processing.

Autobiographical Memory

A type of memory that involves recalling personal experiences and specific events from one’s own life, often with contextual details.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one’s past.

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood, typically before the age of 3 or 4.

Alzheimer’s disease

A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

State-dependent Memory

The phenomenon whereby recall of information is improved when the individual is in the same state or context as when the information was learned.

Mood-congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood, such that happy moods facilitate the recall of positive memories and sad moods facilitate the recall of negative memories.

Context-dependent Memory

The improved recall of information when the individual is in the same environment or context in which the information was originally learned.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply re-reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

storage decay

the natural fading of memories over time due to lack of rehearsal or retrieval, leading to their gradual loss from memory

encoding failure

occurs when information is never effectively transferred from short-term to long-term memory, meaning it's never properly stored in the first place and therefore cannot be recalled later

proactive interference

the phenomenon where old or previously learned information interferes with the encoding and retrieval of new information, making it harder to learn or recall recent material

retroactive interference

a memory phenomenon where recently learned information makes it harder to recall previously learned information

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

a retrieval failure where you feel confident you know a word or name but cannot access it from memory

repression

an unconscious defense mechanism where painful or anxiety-inducing thoughts, memories, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness to protect the mind from distress

misinformation effect

the phenomenon where memories of an event are distorted by post-event information, such as suggestive questions or false details

source amnesia

the inability to remember the original source or context of a learned piece of information, though you still retain the factual knowledge itself

constructive memory

the idea that memory is not a literal recording of the past but an active process of rebuilding experiences by pulling together bits of information, general knowledge, and prior beliefs to fill in gaps or alter details

imagination inflation

the phenomenon where repeatedly imagining an event that never happened increases a person's confidence that the event actually occurred, leading to a false memory or distorted recollection

Algorithm

Methodical rule or procedure

Heuristic

Simple thinking shortcut, such as the availability heuristic (which estimates likelihood based on how easily events come to mind)

Insight

Sudden Aha! reaction

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for support for our own views and ignore contradictory evidence

Fixation

Tendency to search for support for our own views and ignore contradictory evidence

Fixation

Inability to view problems from a new angle

Intuition

Fast, automatic feelings and thoughts

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgement

Belief perseverance

Ignorance evidence that proves of our beliefs are wrong

Framing

wording a question or statement so that it evokes a desired response

Creativity

Ability to innovate valuable ideas