unit 5

assimilation

The process of taking new information and fitting it into existing schemas.

punishment orientation

stage one of preconventional level, do right to avoid punishment

reward orientation

stage two of preconventional level, do right to get reward

good boy-girl

stage three of conventional level, do right to be labeled good

law & order

stage four of conventional level, laws are absolute

social contract

stage five of postconventional level, social rules govern right but aren't absolute

universal ethics

stage six of postconventional level, abstract ethics, equality

accommodation

The process of changing an existing schema to incorporate new information that doesn't fit.

scale errors

Example of assimilation, such as a child trying to sit in a tiny toy chair.

squeaky toy

Example of accommodation, where a child learns a new toy is more fun when squeezed to make a sound.

sensorimotor stage

(Birth-2 years) Infants learn through senses and actions, lack object permanence initially.

object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

A-not-B error

Example where an infant searches for a hidden object in its previous location (A) rather than its new one (B).

preoperational stage

(2-6/7 years) Children use symbols/ language but are egocentric and lack logical operations.

animism

The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and intentions.

egocentrism

The inability to see a situation from another person's point of view.

conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

concrete operational stage

(6/7-11 years) Children can think logically about concrete events and understand conservation.

formal operational stage

(11+ years) Development of abstract, hypothetical, and systematic reasoning.

continuity vs. discontinuity

Debate over whether development is a gradual process or occurs in distinct stages.

"pockets" of development

The idea that cognitive skills develop at different rates based on experience, rather than in unified stages.

developmental psychology

The study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

nature vs. nurture

The debate over the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on development.

zygote

The fertilized egg from conception to 2 weeks.

embryo

The developing human organism from 2 weeks to 8-9 weeks.

fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

teratogens

Agents, such as viruses, drugs, or chemicals, that can cause birth defects during prenatal development.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Example of physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.

critical period

A specific time during development when an organism is especially sensitive to the effects of teratogens.

maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

reflexes

Inborn, automatic responses to specific stimuli (e.g., rooting, sucking, grasping).

gross motor skills

Physical abilities involving large body movements (e.g., running, jumping).

fine motor skills

Physical abilities involving small, coordinated movements (e.g., drawing, writing).

puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

menarche

The first menstrual period.

spermarche

The first ejaculation.

climacteric

The biological transition in midlife marking the end of reproductive capacity, such as menopause in women.

attachment

The emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by seeking closeness and showing distress on separation.

imprinting

A primitive form of attachment where certain animals form strong bonds during an early-life critical period (e.g., Lorenz's geese).

contact comfort

The instinctual need to touch and be touched by something soft, such as skin or fur (e.g., Harlow's monkeys preferring cloth mothers).

separation anxiety

The distress shown by an infant when a familiar caregiver leaves.

stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning around 8 months.

secure attachment

A healthy attachment style where the child uses the caregiver as a secure base for exploration.

insecure attachment

An attachment style marked by anxiety or avoidance in relationships with caregivers.

anxious-ambivalent attachment

An insecure style where the child is clingy yet resistant to the caregiver, especially upon reunion.

avoidant attachment

An insecure style where the child shows little distress upon separation and avoids the caregiver upon return.

parenting styles

Characteristic approaches to raising children, as defined by Diana Baumrind.

authoritative parenting

A style high in warmth and demands, with clear rules and open discussion.

authoritarian parenting

A style high in demands but low in warmth, with strict, punitive control.

permissive parenting

A style high in warmth but low in demands, with few rules or guidelines.

uninvolved/neglectful parenting

A style low in both warmth and demands, characterized by indifference.

temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, which is largely innate.

trust vs. mistrust

Erikson's first stage (0-1 year), where infants learn whether the world is predictable and supportive.

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

Erikson's second stage (1-3 years), focused on developing a sense of personal control.

initiative vs. guilt

Erikson's third stage (3-5 years), focused on initiating activities and coping with failure.

industry vs. inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage (6-11 years), focused on developing competence at tasks.

identity vs. role confusion

Erikson's fifth stage (12-19 years), focused on developing a coherent sense of self.

intimacy vs. isolation

Erikson's sixth stage (young adulthood), focused on forming intimate relationships.

generativity vs. stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage (middle adulthood), focused on contributing to the world.

integrity vs. despair

Erikson's eighth stage (late adulthood), focused on reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment.

stages of death and dying

Kübler-Ross's model: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept: the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

scaffold

The support provided by a more skilled person to help a learner master a task within their ZPD.

theory of mind

The understanding that others have mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions) different from one's own.

private speech

Self-directed speech used by children to regulate behavior and thought, which later becomes internalized.

social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

personal fable

An adolescent's belief that their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique and extraordinary.

imaginary audience

The adolescent belief that others are as concerned with their thoughts and behaviors as they are.

emerging adulthood

The period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, exploring independence before stable adulthood.

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood linked to negative health and social outcomes later in life.