3.1-3.6 MCQ Assessment

ap psychology

cross-sectional study

cross-sectional study

a research design conducted at a single point in time, comparing groups of differing ages to arrive at conclusions about development

longitudinal study

a research design that examines how individuals develop by studying the same sample over a long period of time

lifespan

the entire duration of an individual's life from birth to death, encompassing all stages of development

stability vs change

stability refers to traits and behaviors that remain more or less constant throughout a person's life while change refers to traits and behaviors that are more fluid and flexible throughout a person's life

nature vs nurture

the long-standing debate in psychology about whether genetic factors (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) have a greater influence on human development and behavior

continuous vs discontinuous (stages)

the continuity theory says that development is a gradual, continuous process. On the other hand, the discontinuity theory says that development occurs in a series of distinct stages

teratogen

agents such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

reflex-rooting

the tendency for an infant to move its mouth toward any object that touches its cheek

visual cliff apparatus

a research method used to study depth perception in infants and animals where a glass-covered table with a "cliff" edge is placed, creating the illusion of a drop-off, and observing whether subjects avoid stepping off the edge or not

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development (“use it or lose it”)

adolescent growth spurt

the fast and intense increase in the rate of growth in height and weight that occurs during the adolescent stage of the human life cycle

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits (breasts, hips, body hair, voice)

menarche

the first menstrual period

spermarche

the first ejaculation

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

gender

the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex

piaget

a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. He proposed the theory of cognitive development, which explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world

sensorimotor stage

birth-2 years; infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

conservation

properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

reversibility

​​suggests that many developmental changes are not permanent or fixed, but can be modified or altered through intervention or environmental changes

animism

belief that objects that are inanimate (not living) have feelings, thoughts, and have the mental characteristics and qualities of living things

egocentrism

the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another person’s point of view

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

preoperational stage

2-6/7 years; at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

7-11 years; at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete/physical events

formal operational stage

12+ years; at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

vygotsky

russian psychologist who emphasized how a child would grow to become an adult and come to develop thoughts, behaviors and beliefs

scaffolding

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development

what a child can do with help

crystallized intelligence

the accumulated knowledge, skills, and understanding that a person has acquired throughout their life; the ability to use learned knowledge and experience

fluid intelligence

the ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns

dementia

a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes

phonemes

in a language, the smallest distinctive unit of sound

morphemes

in a language, the smallest possible unit that carries meaning

semantics

the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

syntax

the language’s set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

cooing stage

occurs between 6-8 weeks, characterized by the production of soft voewl-like sounds, often resembling ‘coo’ or ‘goo’

babbling stage

the stage in speech developement, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, ages 1-2, where a child speaks mostly in single words

telegraphic stage

a child speaks like a telegram (ex. “go car”) using mostly nouns and verbs

overgeneralization

a cognitive distortion in which an individual views a single event as an invariable rule

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development using 5 nested systems ranging from direct to indirect influences

microsystems

the immediate environment in which an individual directly interacts with

mesosystem

the connections between different microsystems in an individual's life

exosystem

the formal and informal structures that do not directly impact the child but do influence the child through their direct impact on a member of the child's microsystem

macrosystem

the overarching cultural, societal, and economic influences that shape individuals' lives within their environments

chronosystem

all of the experiences that a person has endured throughout their lifetime (environmental events, major life transitions, and historical events)

authoritarian parenting style

when parents merely impose rules and restrictions while expecting obedience

authoritative parenting style

the parents are nurturing, responsive, and supportive, yet set firm limits for their children

permissive parenting style

parents are warm, but lax; they fail to set firm limits, to monitor children's activities closely or to require appropriately mature behavior of their children

secure attachment

infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in their return

insecure attachment

infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment, an avoidant attachment that resists closeness, or a disorganized attachment with no consistent separation behaviors

avoidant (insecure attachment)

experiencing discomfort when getting close to others and using avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others

anxious (insecure attachment)

constantly craving acceptance but remaining alert to possible rejection

disorganized (insecure attachment)

parents are warm, but lax. They fail to set firm limits, to monitor children's activities closely or to require appropriately mature behavior of their children

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

separation anxiety

a developmental stage characterized by excessive fear or distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregiver or attachment figure

monkey studies (cloth vs wire mother)

the need for tactile or contact comfort explains how attachment develops

parallel play

a type of play where children play alongside each other without actively engaging or interacting with one another

pretend play

a type of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios and act out different roles and events

adolescent egocentrism

when adolescents think intensely about themselves and what others think about them

imaginary audience

when adolescents believe they are at center stage

personal fable

the belief that one is unique, destined to have a heroic, fabled, and legendary life

emerging adulthood

a phase of the life span between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, usually ranging from about 18 to 29 years old. It's characterized by exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling in-between and possibilities

attachment theory (ainsworth)

a psychological model that describes the long-term interpersonal relationships between humans; it suggests that children form an emotional bond with caregivers due to their care and responsiveness

8 psychosocial stages (without erikson name)

trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation and integrity vs despair

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

severe deprivation or abuse that slows development

achievement identity process

commitment is high and the person has gone through a period of exploring many options

diffusion identity process

a state where individuals lack a clear sense of self and have not made commitments to any particular identity or life direction

foreclosure identity process

when a decision has been made without looking into alternatives

moratorium identity process

when a person is trying out roles or activities in order to fine the most suitable one