Honors Human Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam

Flashcards for Honors Human Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam Topics to Study for Final 2025

Synapse

The site of communication between two neurons, involving ion channels, synaptic vesicles, calcium ions, a postsynaptic membrane, and a synaptic cleft.

Reflex

An involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus.

Afferent Nerve Fiber

A nerve fiber that carries sensory information from the periphery to the central nervous system.

Efferent Nerve Fiber

A nerve fiber that carries motor commands from the central nervous system to the periphery.

Saltatory Conduction

The propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials.

Glial Cells (CNS)

Support cells in the central nervous system that provide structural support, insulation, and protection for neurons.

Glial Cells (PNS)

Support cells in the peripheral nervous system that surround and support nerve fibers.

Depolarization

A change in a neuron's membrane potential, making it more positive and increasing the likelihood of an action potential.

Neuron Parts

Include the cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, and axon terminals; each part has a specific function in transmitting nerve impulses.

Neurotransmitter

A substance released at axon terminals to propagate a nerve impulse to another neuron or target cell.

Resting Potential

The electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is not being stimulated, established by active transport of ions.

Brain Stem

The posterior part of the brain, continuous with the spinal cord, including the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

Meninges Layers

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater; protective layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Vital Centers

Located in the brain stem, controlling heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure.

Gyri

Ridges of tissue on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

Spinal Nerve Regions

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions; each region gives rise to a specific number of spinal nerves.

Peripheral Nerve Regeneration

Guided by Schwann cells, which form a regeneration tube to help the nerve regrow.

Balance

Controlled by the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII).

Fight or Flight Response

The role of the sympathetic nervous system.

Sagittal View of Ear

Important for identifying structures like the tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea, and auditory tube.

Eye Physiology

Understanding how different parts of the eye contribute to vision.

Eye Anatomy

Identifying structures like the lens, cornea, iris, and retina.

Dwarfism

Caused by a deficiency in growth hormone.

Acromegaly

Caused by an excess of growth hormone in adults.

Addison’s Disease

Caused by hyposecretion of adrenal cortex hormones, like cortisol and aldosterone.

Graves Disease

An autoimmune disorder that leads to overactivity of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism).

Diabetes Mellitus

Caused by insufficient insulin secretion or resistance to insulin, leading to elevated blood glucose levels.

Blood Calcium Levels

Regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.

Blood Glucose Levels

Regulated by insulin and glucagon.

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone)

Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.

Pancreatic Cells and Insulin

Beta cells in the pancreas produce insulin.

Thyroxine Production

Requires iodine.

Hormone Specificity

Specific tissues or organs respond to a hormone because they have receptors specific to that hormone.

Second Messenger Theory

Hormones bind to receptors on the cell membrane, activating intracellular signaling pathways via second messengers.

Growth Hormone Targets

Main targets include bones and skeletal muscles.

Mineralocorticoid Hormone

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone.

Glucocorticoid Hormone

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone.

Fight or Flight Hormone

Epinephrine (adrenaline) is released in the fight or flight response.

Leukemia

Cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal proliferation of leukocytes.

Leukopenia

A decrease in the number of white blood cells (leukocytes).

Blood Cells

Leukocytes (white blood cells), erythrocytes (red blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets).

White Blood Cell Types

Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

Normal Blood pH

7.35-7.45

ABO System

A blood classification system based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens, determining donors and recipients for blood transfusions.

Plasma Proteins

Albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.

Erythroblastosis Fetalis

Possible when an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive fetus, causing the mother's immune system to attack the fetal red blood cells in subsequent pregnancies.

Purkinje Fibers

Specialized conducting fibers that spread the electrical impulse throughout the ventricles.

SA Node

The heart's natural pacemaker, initiating the electrical impulses that control heart rate.

AV Node

Delays the electrical impulse from the atria before it passes to the ventricles.

AV Bundle (Bundle of His)

Conducts the electrical impulse from the AV node to the bundle branches.

Bundle Branches

Carry the electrical impulse down the interventricular septum to the Purkinje fibers.

Myocardium Blood Supply

Received from the coronary arteries.

Lub-Dub Sounds

Signify the closing of the heart valves during the cardiac cycle; 'lub' is the AV valves closing, and 'dub' is the semilunar valves closing.

Blood Vessel Layers

Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia (externa).

Electrocardiogram Waves

P wave (atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), and T wave (ventricular repolarization).

Blood Pathway Through Heart and Lungs

Right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta.

Foramen Ovale

An opening in the interatrial septum of the fetal heart that allows blood to bypass the fetal lungs.

Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood to the heart, and capillaries facilitate exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissues.

Hepatic Portal Circulation

The circulation that runs from the digestive tract to the liver.

Tidal Volume

The volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

Pharynx Anatomy

Includes the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx; location of the tonsils.

Gas Exchange in Lungs

Occurs through diffusion across the alveolar and cell membranes.

Nose and Nasal Passage Function

To filter, warm, and humidify incoming air.

Respiratory Mucosa Histology

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells.

Epiglottis

Structure responsible for closing off the trachea during swallowing.

Carbohydrate Digestion

Begins in the oral cavity with salivary amylase.

Protein Digestion

Begins in the stomach with pepsin.

Fat Digestion

Begins in the small intestine with pancreatic lipase.

Deciduous Teeth

General name of the first teeth to appear in the oral cavity.

Liver Digestive Function

Produces bile, which emulsifies fats.

Alimentary Canal Layers

Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.

Chyme

A semi-fluid mass of partially digested food and gastric secretions in the stomach and small intestine.

Carbohydrate Digesting Enzyme

Amylase.

Tooth Structures

Enamel, dentin, pulp cavity, root, and periodontal ligament.

Digestive Glands

Salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, and liver.

Nephron Structures

Glomerulus, afferent arteriole, collecting duct, and Loop of Henle.

Urine Pathway

Nephron, collecting duct, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra.

Renal Corpuscle Components

Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule.

Alcohol as a Diuretic

Inhibits the release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone), leading to increased urine production.

Nephron

The functional and structural unit of a kidney.

Urine Output

Varies depending on fluid intake, but is significantly less than the amount of fluid processed in the kidneys due to reabsorption.