Media Representations of Gender

What is symbolic annihilation (radical feminists)?

Symbolic annihilation refers to the absence of representation, underrepresentation or misrepresentation of a social group in the media.

Tuchman identified three aspects of symbolic annihilation of women in the media:

1) Omission: women are absent or underrepresented in media content.

2) Trivialisation: women’s roles are diminished or portrayed as insignificant.

3) Condemnation: when women step outside traditional roles, they are often criticised or portrayed negatively.

What is the Male Gaze?

Mulvey states that many films, TV shows, adverts and other media are made from the a heterosexual male’s perspective. Women are shown as sexual objects to be looked at and enjoyed by men. The Male Gaze can be from the perspective of the director or a character in the story or the audience.

What does the Marxist Feminist sociologist, Ferguson say?

The cult of feminity: This is the media’s obsession with traditional female roles. Women’s magazines often send the message that a woman’s main goals in life should be: getting married, having children, taking care of the home and looking attractive for men.

The media reinforces patriarchy by telling women that their value comes from their looks or relationships, not their careers or intelligence.

What does the Marxist Feminist, Wolf say?

The Beauty Myth refers to the unrealistic beauty standards imposed on women and the relentless pressure to conform to those narrow representations. Wolf noted that magazines in the 1950s glamorised the image of a woman being ‘the good wife, mother and an efficient homemaker’.

Criticisms of the Marxist Feminist view of media reps of gender

Not all media representations of women reinforce capitalism and are for consumer consumption. Some media representations of women may be authentic portrayals of women’s experiences and struggles.

What does the Liberal Feminist, McRobbie say?

McRobbie studied media and popular culture in the 1990s and 200s and argued that while the media often shows women as independent, confident and successful, this portrayal can be misleading and portrays an ‘illusion of equality’. This is a surface-level image that ignores the real inequalities, like pay gaps, discrimination, and societal pressures.

McRobbie also argued that popular feminism in the media can be used by capitalism- selling empowerment as a product (like makeup, fashion, or lifestyle). This means that feminism is sometimes turned into a way to make money, instead of a real challenge to inequality.

What does the Liberal Feminist, Gill say?

Gill studied how women are shown in advertising and popular media and argued that media images are contradictory and complex. The media often promote the idea that feminism’s goals have been achieved- women are ‘free’ and ‘in control’. Women are encouraged to constantly monitor and perfect their bodies to meet ideal standards. This is shown as a personal choice but reinforces pressure on women to conform to narrow beauty ideals.

Women’s transgressive roles in the media

Women challenge traditional stereotypes about how women ‘should behave’. They are shown breaking traditional stereotypes about femininity- being strong, independent, or rebellious- which challenges old stereotypes about what women can or should be.

Examples: Katniss Everdeen in The Hunger Games, El in Stranger Things and Ellie in TLOU

Criticism of Liberal Feminists theory

Radical feminists would argue that liberal feminists underestimate the structural inequalities women face as a result of patriarchal society. Representations of women in the media may be tokenistic and empowerment may often be a mask for objectification.

Postmodernist view of media representations of gender (Gauntlett)

Gauntlett tracks how representations of men and women have evolved from more rigid stereotyped roles in the past to more varied ones today. For example, women’s magazines increasingly encourage independence and assertiveness; men’s media also begin to show more emotional complexity. The media doesn’t simply dictate what gender identity must be, but provides resources, models, images and discourses that people can draw on accept, reject or adapt. 

• The media is no longer controlled by media professionals because the audience also produces content e.g. on TikTok. This is called user generated content. Women can use the media to construct their own identities through choice in what they consume and self-representation (e.g influencers, TikTok creators).

Criticisms of Gauntlett’s theory

Gauntlett perhaps overestimates the extent to which media representations of women have improved- he ignores how patriarchy is ingrained into all social structures, oppressing women.

Postmodernist key terms

The New Man is a man who combines traditional masculinity with pro-feminist, sensitive, and caring traits, participating in childcare and housework and taking an interest in his appearance.

The Metrosexual Man (urban m/c man) wears designer clothes and uses skin care products. A man who is usually heterosexual and is very interested in fashion, grooming, and his appearance. For example, David Beckham.

Postmodernist theory

The old stereotypical gender roles are still present in many media forms, especially older media. New kinds of role models offer alternative ways for people to imagine their gender identity. These help people ‘navigate’ their identity, choosing what feels relevant or possible.

‘Double-bind’: the media may ask women to be strong and independent but also to maintain certain beauty standards; men may be expected to be in control but also to be sensitive.

Criticisms of Postmodernism

+: It reflects real social change- the audience have more agency and more representation than before. This supports the idea of media pluralism: multiple perspectives exist, not just one dominant ideology. 

-: still commercialised: diversity and ‘choice’ are often commodified by media companies.

What does the Radical Feminist, Faludi say?

• Retributive Masculinity: men are defined as in opposition to feminism. E.g Andrew Tate and others present a digital ‘backlash’ against progressive gender ideas. They often claim that men are being ‘feminised’ and must ‘reclaim’ masculinity.

This links to Faludi’s concept of a ‘backlash against feminism’. She argued that whenever feminism makes significant progress there is often a cultural and media-driven backlash that aims to undermine or reverse these gains. The media backlash may include: negative portrayals of feminists, the media portraying men as confused, emasculated or ‘lost’ in a world shaped by feminism. E.g, The Simpsons and Modern Family shows a bumbling, clueless dad who are passive next to their more competent wives.

Liberal feminism (Hegemonic Masculinity + March of Progress)

Hegemonic masculinity refers to society’s dominant idea of what it means to be a ‘real man’- usually strong, tough, emotionally distant, wealthy, and in control. Liberal feminists argued that the media historically presented men as having hegemonic masculinity. For e.g. actions films like, James Bond.

Hegemonic masculinity still dominates in blockbusters, sports media, and reality TV. 

• In contemporary media they may recognise some progress: more diverse and emotionally expressive portrayals of men (stay-at-home dads, emotionally open male leads).