S10) the gift. form and function of exchange in "archaic" societies

by Marcel Mauss

total social facts

• total social facts describes activities that simultaneously engage all aspects of society—legal, economic, religious, aesthetic, and moral—acting as a "motor" for social cohesion. Popularized in The Gift, this concept means these actions, such as gift-giving, are not merely exchanges but profound, obligatory, and multi-layered events

the three dimensions (obligations) of of gift-giving/basic principles of gift giving

• obligation to give gifts

• obligation to receive gifts

• obligation to reciprocate gifts

first contracts and gift giving

• between men and spirits of the dead and of the gods

• spirits as the true owners of the possessions of this world

• necessary to exchange possessions, dangerous not to exchange them

• gifts serve purpose of buying peace between humans and spirits and to get rid of bad influences and evil spirits

what power or principle within a gift that obligates to reciprocate

• hau (concept by the Maori)

→ part of the giver within the gift, that wants to return back to the giver

→ obligation to reciprocate and bring part of the giver back to the giver

• gift received is not inactive

• possession (taonga) implored to destroy individual that accepted them

summary

• three basic principles

• function of gift giving: stability and security of social relations

• principle of hau

• phenomenon of gift giving forms total social facts because social relations are (re)produced on different levels in those tsf

economics (from economical perspective)

• prescriptive perspective: how should people act to make efficient decisions?

• consumption: of goods, satisfaction of physical and social needs

• distribution: to consumers, exchange of objects through principle of supply and demand, exchange of objects based on their market value, no social relations needed

• production: transformation of goods into other goods, natural resources, work, material goods, services

economics (from an economic anthro perspective)

• descriptive perspective: description of how people actually act

• consumption: symbolical dimensions, cultural factors, use value, ideal value, value through prestige

• distribution: to consumers, exchange of objects, social relations in focus

what is economics?

• holistic: examination of connection between economical acts and different social aspects, economics cannot be understood without looking at their cultural and social contexts

historical debate: formalism vs substantivism

formalism: (Raymond Firth)

• basis of economica not applicable to non-western societies

• all economic systems follow the same formal rules: unlimited needs, rational decisions, profit maximization (homo oeconomicus)

• universalist

substantivism: (Karl Polanyi)

• difference between market-dominated and non-western societies

• basis of economics are not applicable to non-western societies

• every economic system is socially embedded and economic acts can follow rules other than formalist rules (e.g. reciprocity)

• relativistic

critique on formalism

• interpretation that all economic acts are based on own benefit and rationality is not disprovable

• if something is not done for monetary gain, it is done for gains like enjoyment, status, validation

• acts that don’t benefit oneself are seen as irrational but can be very rational within own culture

critique on substantivism

• differentiation of modern and preindustrial economies is problematic

• homogenising and essentialistic differentiation between societies

• acts that don’t maximise own use exist in all societies - even capitalist

• individual decisions are overlooked

feminist approaches

• since 1970s critique on gendered domains: economics and politics - male, household and care - feminine

• focus on connection between production and reproduction

• household and care as invible forms of work