Aggression

The Limbic System

Exists only in mammals; its structures help coordinate motivational and emotional urges such as fear, aggression, happiness and also memories

Hypothalamus

Responsible for the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, which in turn regulates responses to emotional circumstances - therefore, damage to this area can result in an appropriate aggressive response to the perceived threat

Hippocampus

Involved in forming long-term memories and learning and spatial awareness and navigation - damage here can severely impair your memory

Amygdala

• Responsible for attaching emotional significance to sensory information

• The emotional centre of the brain that processes fear-inducing and threatening stimuli and how they are linked/associated with forming new memories

• Helps evaluate sensory information and evaluate an appropriate response - preparing the body for an emergency situation

Serotonin

• In normal levels, seems to have a calming inhibitory effect on neural firing in the prefrontal cortex, so therefore associated with greater behavioural self-control

• Low levels may disrupt the calm firing of neurons, with the result that individuals are less able to resist impulse to be aggressive

• Exact role played in aggression is unclear

Evaluation of Neural Mechanisms - Case Study of Phineas Gage

Had a metal rod shot through his eye that completely destroyed his amygdala and made him more angry

Issue/Debate of Neural Mechanisms

Biologically Reductionist - the limbic system oversimplifies the complex behaviour

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are released by a cell or gland in one part of the body that effects and sends messages to target cells in other parts of the body

Testosterone

Hormone responsible for the development of masculine features - it helps regulate social behaviour via influence on areas of the brain (and body) involved in aggression

Evaluation of Hormonal Mechanisms - Simpson (2001)

Measured the normal level of aggression in mice, castrated the mice (castration = decrease in aggression seen in mouse behaviour)

Twin Studies

Berkowitz found a concordance rate of 87% for monozygotic twin sets, and 72% for dizygotic twin sets

Adoption Studies

If aggression is primarily genetically determined, the adopted child will show more similar levels of aggression to their biological parents than their adopted parents

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Gene

• People show aggression due to a low function MAOA gene that is unable to produce enough of the necessary enzyme

• The gene is inherited and is related to increased likelihood of aggressive behaviour

• Not always activated - only expressed when triggered by childhood abuse

Evaluation of Genetic Factors - Capsi et al (2002)

Longitudinal study over 26 years in New Zealand found that the MAOA-L variant had no effect on its own - only in circumstances of abuse as children

Evaluation of Genetic Factors - Brunner (1993)

Studied a Dutch family of men that were repeatedly involved in impulsively criminal behaviour

Issue/Debate of Genetic Factors - Nature/Nurture

Diathesis-Stress = gene/environment interaction

Ethological Explanation

Looks at animals in their natural setting, which means we can understand the way it has helped their evolutionary process, and infer it to ours

Aggression is Adaptive

An aggressive instinct developed during evolution because it yielded benefits in mating, finding food, resources, and territoy within an environment of limited resources - beneficial to survival because it reduces competition, and establishes dominance hierarchies

Aggression is Ritualistic

Lorenz formulated the idea of ritualised aggression - the showing of aggression as an assertion of power, dominance and maintenance of status over others - a threat display but not actual violence

Innate Releasing Mechanisms (IRM)

Neural networks that when triggered by a specific stimulus (known as a ‘sign stimulus’) communicates with motor control circuits to activate the fixed action pattern (FAP) that is associated with that sign stimulus

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)

An innate sequence of movements that is triggered by a specfic sign stimulus and, once inhertied, will run to completion and cannot be altered

Characteristics of FAPs: Stereotyped

The behaviour always occurs in the same way (set actions)

Characteristics of FAPs: Universal

The behaviour is the same in all conspecifics

Characteristics of FAPs: Innate

No learning is involved (autonomic responses)

Characteristics of FAPs: Ballistic

Once triggered, the FAP cannot be stopped or changed

Characteristics of FAPs: Specific Triggers

Each FAP has a specific trigger (sign stimulus)

Evaluation of Ethological Explanation: Tinbergen’s Stickleback Fish (1951)

Presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes - found that if the model had a red spot the stickleback would aggressive display and even attack it, regardless of shape

Evaluation of Ethological Explanations - Lacks Population Validity

Can’t generalise findings from animal research to human behaviour

Issue/Debate of Ethological Explanation - Nature/Nurture

Takes an interactionist approach on the natire/nurture debate - biological are caused by the need for them in the animal’s environment

Anti-Cuckoldry Behaviours: Males

Uncertain paternity = a men can never be certain that he is the genetic father of his children unless he prevents his partner from having any kind of relationships with any other men - becomes jealous and therefore aggressive

Anti-Cuckoldry Behaviours: Females

Certain maternity = females are certain that they are the genetic mother of their child and therefore they are not at risk of wasting valuable resources in raising children that are not their own; if a male is involved with another woman there is a potential threat he might be investing in a new relationship - jealousy

Mate Retention Strategies: Vigilance & Direct Guarding

A man’s vigilance over a partner’s behaviour (e.g. checking who they have been seeing); can include coming home from work early, or checking messages on phone, checking social media posts etc, restricts her movements

Mate Retention Strategies: Negative Inducements

Includes threats of consequences for infidelity, can be financial control, threat of violence or actual physical violence

Male bullying - physical

Bullying ensures access to females and reduces threats from other males - suggests dominance, acquisition of resources, strength and wards off potential rivals

Female Bullying - verbal

Helps secure partner’s fidelity, ensuring the partner continues to provide resources for future offspring, this takes place within a relationship - downplays attractiveness of any other rival women

Evaluation of Evolutionary Explanation - Temporal Validity

Hugely outdated - not all relationships are heterosexual + not everyone has biological children

Evaluation of Evolutonary Explanation - Shackelford

Found a positive correlation between men who used MRS and their use of violence against their partners

Issue/Debate of Evolutionary Explanation - Socially Sensitive

Should never be used as an excuse/vindication for domestic abuse/bullying

Factors affecting the likelihood and target of the aggression: Motivation

Aggression as an outcome of frustration will be more likely if the person is more highly motivated to reach their goal - if they have invested in the improtance of the goal, the motivation to achieve the goal will be higher, therefore frustration will be more e.g. being late for a class test vs an A-Level exam

Factors affecting the likelihood and target of the aggression: Proximity

The nearer to a goal a person is before someone/something becomes an obstacle to the goal, the higher the frustration becomes, and therefore, more likely the aggression e.g. 15th in queue for lunch vs 2nd in queue

Factors affecting the likelihood and target of the aggression: Justified?

Whether or not it is a justified or unjustified obstacle e.g. a bus not stopping that’s clearly full vs a bus not stopping that has plenty of room

Factors affecting the likelihood and target of the aggression: Displacement

Sometimes it is not appropriate to respond aggressively to the source of frustration e.g. boss/teacher/someone bigger - instead you displace it onto a scapegoat e.g. your cat/partner/friend

Evaluation of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - Harris (1974)

Used participants who were naturally standing in line, and got confederates to cut in the line - supports the idea of proximity to goal

Evaluation of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - Geen’s Jigsaw

Male university students completed a jigsaw puzzle and it was either impossible to solve, insulted by a confederate or ran out of time because of confederate - gave electric shocks to confederate more than control group did

Issue/Debate of Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis - Soft Determinist

Actively promotes the idea of choice ovver what level and type of aggression is demonstrated

SLT: View of Aggression

Takes a neo-behaviourist view of aggression: we learn aggression, we copy it from others via observational learning, we learn behaviours from ‘models’ (via ‘modelling’), likelihood of aggression being learnt increased through vicarious reinforcement

SLT: Aggressive Models

We copy any behaviour from models - we are more likely to copy a role model who: we look up to/admire, who we identify with (age/gender/interests/sizes), who is influential e.g. parents/peers/influencers etc.

SLT: Observational Learning

Occurs when an aggressive berhaviour of a model is viewed and copied - via 4 Mediational Processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation

SLT: Vicarious Reinforcement

If the model is rewarded in a way that you find attractive, you feel the reward ‘through’ the model (indirect reward), and you are more likely to copy the behaviour e.g. if a model who bullies gains money/status, the viewer will indirectly feel this reward too - if it is attractive to them, they will imitate this aggressive behaviour

SLT: Self Efficacy

An individual’s belief in their own ability to execute the behaviours necessary to achieve specific goals e.g. a child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression has brought rewards (e.g. child who regularly hits others to get a toy learns they have the motor skills and strength to do so and this ability comes easily to them

Evaluation of SLT - Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Children who observed the aggressive model, made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups

Evaluation of SLT - Charlton’s St Helena Study

Introduced aggressive TV to a remote community, but there was NO significant increase in aggressive play challenging the theory of Social Learning

Issue/Debate of SLT - Nature/Nurture

Highlights the nurture factors in aggression but ignores nature factors

Deindividuation

The loss of a sense of identity and a loosening of normal inhibitions against engaging in behaviour that is inconsistent with internal standards

Reduced Personal Responsibility

Occurs in any situation where individual identifiaction is restricted - as changes in normal standards of behaviour can occur; no need to conform to social roles or expected norms as responsibility is removed

Anonymity

With no way of identifying you, people cannot hold you personally responsible for your actions - you are free to act in any way you want to

Private Self-Awareness

A concern we have for our own thoughts and feelings (internal standards and morals) - can be reduced by involvement in activities where we ‘forget ourselves’ e.g. alcohol/drugs

Public Self-Awareness

A concern about the impression present to other people - knowing that you’ll be evaluated by them on that basis; can be reduced by anonymity

Evaluation of Deindividuation - Zimbardo’s Experiment

Every guard and prisoner at some point behaved in an aggressive manner - a diffusion of responsibility

Evaluation of Deindividuation - Gergen Dark Room Study

In the dark room 80% of participants ‘got physical’ and were sexually aroused - no aggression was displayed here so challenges that it causes aggression but supports the theory that people feel free to engage in behaviours against social norms

Issue/Debate of Deindividuation - Nature/Nurture

Highlights nurture factors in aggression (social factors of observational learning) - -not enough to be a valid theory

Dispositional Explanation: Importation Model

Institutional aggression results from the characteristics of the prisoners themselves - Irwin and Cressey argued that prisoners import their own characteristics (dispositions) into the prisons (often the reason they are sentenced in the first place) and continue to behave in this way

Importation Model: Disenfranchisement

These groups are likely to become ‘disenfranchised’ and seperated from mainstream society’s norms and values that promote prosocial methods of meeting basic needs and solving interpersonal conflict

Importation Model: Addiction

Weeks (1998) found higher levels of ‘serious institutional misconduct’ amongst prisoners rated with severe levels of alcohol dependence

Importation Model: Subcultures

Many of these people will live in a subculture where aggression is valued, respected and reinforced

Evaluation of Dispositional Explanations - DeLisi (2011)

Studied juvenile delinquents in California and found that the group with negative backgrounds were found to be more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression whilst in prison than the control group

Situational Explanation: The Deprivation Model

Sykes (1958) believed that aggression in prisons emanated from within the institution, not from the outside; arises from the ‘degradation’ and ‘indignities’ suffered from becoming an inmate - Deprivation of liberty, of autonomy, of goods and services, of heterosexual relationships, of security, ALSO overcrowding and inadequate living conditions

Evaluation of Situational Explanations - Zimbardo

Psychologically healthy males were chosen yet ALL participants displayed aggressive behaviour in the prison environment

Issue/Debate of Institutional Aggression - Hard Determinist

They propose that prisoners WILL display aggression in prisonand so will be unable to change this behaviour - ignores free will

Media Influences: Excessive TV Viewing

Robertson found that number of hours watching TV in childhood was associated with the amount of adult convictions for aggressive and violent crimes - also due to reduced social interaction: no real experiences of conflict resolution

Media Influences: Violent Film Content

Bandura’s second Bobo Doll study found that children imitated an adult model’s aggression even when show on a screen - studies have found significant positive correlations between TV violence and antisocial behaviour

Media Influences: Influence of Gaming

The player is more active than the passive TV viewers, and in gaming the play is directly rewarding whereas TV viewing rewards are indirect

Evaluation of Media Influences - Matthews (2006)

Violent condition of video games = increased activity in amygdala (increased emotions) and decreased actuvuty in prefrontal cortex (inhibitions, self-control and concentration)

Evaluation of Media Influences - Bandura (1963)

The children still imitated the aggressive behaviour from the screen (including the aggressive behaviours and languages)

Issue/Debate of Media Influences - Hard Determinist

States that after viewing or gaming aggressive media we WILL become aggressive - ignores free will

Desensitisation (Biological Effect)

When children repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent computer games, they build up a physical tolerance to its effects, resulting in a reduction of anxiety and arousal on repeated viewing/playing

Evaluation of Desensitisation - Krahe (2011)

Showed ppts violent and non-violent film clips, and found that ppts who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal when they watched the violent clips

Disinhibition (Social Effect)

Most people generally hold the view that violence and aggression are antisocial and harmful, these restraints are loosened after exposure to violent media, where aggression is often made to appear normative and justified

Evaluation of Disinhibition - Berkowitz & Alioto

Found that participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengence gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate

Cognitive Priming (Cognitive Effect)

Repeated viewing of aggressive media can provide us with a ‘script’ (schema) about how violent situations may play out - we become ready to act on it

Evaluation fo Cognitive Priming - Bushman (2002)

Students viewed 15 minutes of aggression from the film Karate Kid 3, while a control group viewed an equally arousing non-violent film (Gorillas in the Mist) - ppts who watched the aggressive film clip delivered longer and higher intensity punishments against an imaginary opponent

Issue/Debate of Explanations of Media Influence - Hard Determinist

States that after viewing or gaming aggressive media we WILL become aggressive - no room for free will