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Humanism
A cultural and intellectual movement during the Renaissance that focused on the study of human potential, achievements, and capabilities, often through the lens of classical literature and arts.
Individualism
Emphasis on the uniqueness and importance of the individual, promoting the development of one's talents and capabilities without subordinating them to the community.
Secularism
A focus on worldly matters and concerns rather than religious or spiritual ones, often seen in Renaissance art and literature that depict non-religious themes.
Ancient Greece
A civilization in Europe that laid the foundation for Western society in areas such as architecture, government, art, philosophy, and more.
Individualism
The concept that individuals can be improved through moral training and are distinct parts of the polis (city-state).
Pre-Socratic Philosophers
Greek philosophers who lived before Socrates and were concerned with natural philosophy (science) and the underlying causes of nature.
Thales of Miletus
A pre-Socratic philosopher who believed that all substance is made from water and made significant contributions to early Greek thought.
Anaximander
A pre-Socratic philosopher who believed the basic material of the universe was the apeiron or unlimited and made advancements in cosmology.
Heraclitus
A pre-Socratic philosopher who believed in constant change and the importance of interpreting the senses correctly to uncover the nature of reality.
Parmenides
A pre-Socratic philosopher who dismissed change as an illusion and emphasized the existence of a single unchanging reality.
Empedocles
A pre-Socratic philosopher credited with the notion of four elements (fire, air, earth, water) and the forces of love and strife governing their interactions.
Atomism
A philosophical theory founded by Leucippus and developed by Democritus, positing that the universe is composed of indivisible atoms and void space.
Greek Philosophy
The early Greek philosophers set the framework for Western science and philosophy, addressing questions about the nature of the world, change, senses, and underlying reality.
Sophists
Intellectuals in ancient Greece who specialized in rhetoric, argumentation, philosophy, and science, challenging traditional moral and religious values.
Protagoras
A famous sophist known for the statement "Man is the measure of all things," emphasizing relativism in moral beliefs.
Pythagoras
Founder of the Pythagorean school, known for the Pythagorean theorem and contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy.
Pythagorean Theorem
A fundamental principle in geometry stating that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Incommensurables
Concept introduced by Pythagoreans, referring to irrational numbers like pi that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers.
Music of the Spheres
Belief by Pythagoreans that celestial bodies create harmonious sounds, reflecting the mathematical order of the universe.
Transmigration of the Soul
Pythagorean belief in the soul moving through different forms after death, emphasizing ethical living and immortality.
Plato
Influential Greek philosopher who explored metaphysics, mathematics, and the theory of forms, impacting Western philosophical tradition.
Allegory of the Cave
Plato's metaphor in "Republic" illustrating the journey from ignorance to enlightenment through philosophical contemplation.
Demiurge
Concept in Plato's "Timaeus" representing a divine craftsman who creates the world based on eternal forms and mathematical principles.
Plato
Ancient Greek philosopher who believed in the concept of the soul of the world and the harmonious nature of the universe.
Soul of the World
The belief that the universe is alive and ensouled, with everything in it interconnected.
Heavenly Spheres
Celestial spheres that guide the motion of the sun, moon, and planets according to Plato's cosmology.
Dualism
The philosophical concept of the separation of body and mind, as believed by Plato.
Demiurge
In Plato's philosophy, the divine craftsman who created the soul, which is part of the eternal world.
Philosophy
The practice that helps the soul detach from the temporal world and seek true reality, according to Plato.
Platonic Love
Love without physical desires, focusing on the eternal aspects of a person such as the soul.
Philosopher King
The ideal ruler in Plato's political theory, who contemplates true reality and governs wisely.
Abstract Laws
Governing principles that Plato believed could be discovered through observation of the natural world, revealing order and design.
Aristotle
A Greek philosopher known as "The Philosopher," an empiricist, biologist, and student of Plato who founded the Lyceum and made significant contributions to various fields such as ethics, logic, astronomy, and politics.
Empiricism
A philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of observation and experience in gaining knowledge, as advocated by Aristotle.
Lyceum
A school and research center founded by Aristotle upon his return to Athens in 335 BC, where he collected manuscripts, maps, zoological samples, botanical samples, and political constitutions.
Metaphysics
A term coined by Aristotle to refer to the branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality and existence beyond the physical world.
Hylomorphism
Aristotle's doctrine that every natural being consists of both form and matter, which are inseparable, leading to the belief that when an animal dies, its soul also perishes.
Four Causes
Aristotle's method of understanding natural beings by considering their material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause.
Telos
The Greek term for "end point" or purpose, reflecting Aristotle's belief that everything in nature has a specific purpose or goal.
De Anima
Aristotle's work on the soul, where he defines the soul as the form of a body potentially alive, emphasizing the principle of life and the animating force in living beings.
Unmoved Mover
Aristotle's concept of God as the primary, eternal, and unmoved source of all movement in the universe, existing as the final cause and ultimate purpose of all things.
Teleological
Referring to the idea that natural phenomena and beings exhibit purposeful design or motion toward an end, as seen in Aristotle's view of nature.
Aristotle's concept of change
Change occurs along a continuum between pairs of contrary qualities, involving movement from potentiality to actuality.
Nicomachean Ethics
Aristotle's work that discusses the goal of human life as achieving happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia) through proper function and virtue.
Rational activity
The proper function of a human being according to Aristotle, distinguishing humans from other animals and essential for achieving happiness.
Aristotelian virtue
Virtues such as courage, temperance, justice, and practical wisdom that guide individuals to act with excellence and balance.
Moral virtues
Virtues that involve choosing the mean between extremes of excess and deficiency in actions, desires, or emotions, leading to peak excellence.
Intellectual virtues
Virtues like science, techne, and practical wisdom that encompass knowledge, judgment, and the ability to act effectively.
Golden mean theory
Aristotle's concept of finding balance and excellence by choosing the mean between extremes in actions, emotions, and virtues.
Prudence
A virtue that involves knowing how to make judgments, act appropriately, and deliberate effectively, essential for achieving excellence in life.
Knowledge
The process of becoming accustomed to the idea of excellence and understanding what is right, leading to the prospect of happiness.
Virtue
A habit of choosing the mean between extremes in actions or emotions, leading to moral excellence.
Socrates
Believed virtues are a matter of knowing, where a person who truly knows what is right will do right.
Aristotle
Argued that knowing what is right does not guarantee virtuous behavior, and that virtue requires habit.
Prudence
The ability to see situations realistically, deliberate for the correct amount of time, and make the right assessments, necessary for the practice and development of moral virtues.
Practical Syllogism
A logical method proposed by Aristotle to make decisions on practical matters by using universal premises and conclusions.
Friendship
Three types - of pleasure, of utility, and of excellence, with the latter being based on virtuous behavior and encouraging moral excellence in each other.
Politics
Aristotle's belief that ethics is part of a larger project called "politics," where humans are inherently political and social beings, aiming to participate in the community for the common good.
Tyranny
A form of government where a single ruler, the tyrant, rules for his own benefit rather than for the good of the community.
Monarchy
A form of government where a single individual, often a king or queen, rules with authority.
Aristocracy
A form of government where power is in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class.
Democracy
A form of government where power is vested in the people, either directly or through elected representatives.
Oligarchy
A form of government where a small group of people holds power.
Friendship of Excellence
A type of friendship based on virtue and mutual support, necessary for upholding monarchy, aristocracy, and temocracy.
Communal Ownership
Ownership of property or resources by the community as a whole rather than by individuals.
Casuistry
Branch of ethics dealing with what a person should have known or considered in a given situation, often used to determine moral responsibility.
Corrective Justice
Involves restoring equality between parties by compensating the wronged or injured party.
Distributive Justice
Concerned with fairness in the distribution of goods and resources, aiming for proportional equality rather than exact amounts.
Euclid
A Greek mathematician known for his axiomatic and deductive system of geometry, who worked in Alexandria.
Eratosthenes
A Greek mathematician and head of the Library of Alexandria, known for his experiment to measure the size of the Earth using shadows and angles.
Hipparchus
A Greek astronomer who compiled extensive star catalogues, measured the distance between the moon and the Earth, and determined the length of the lunar cycle.
Archimedes
A Greek mathematician and inventor known for his works on mathematics, mechanics, and inventions like the Archimedean screw and the principle of the lever.
Eureka
The exclamation attributed to Archimedes when he discovered a method to determine the purity of gold without destroying it, by using water displacement.
Ptolemy
A Greek astronomer who developed a geocentric model of the universe, known for his work that formed the basis of astronomical thought for centuries.
Eccentric
A planetary orbit where the center does not coincide with the center of the Earth, leading to variations in the length of seasons.
Apollonius of Perga
A mathematician who devised innovations related to planetary motion, further developed by Hipparchus of Samos.
Hipparchus
An astronomer who expanded on the work of Apollonius of Perga, known as a diligent worker and lover of truth.
Ptolemy
An astronomer who developed a system explaining planetary motion, accounting for phenomena like retrograde motion and changes in brightness.
Almagest
A work by Ptolemy containing astronomical calculations.
Tetrabiblos
A book by Ptolemy discussing prognostications and horoscopes, in conjunction with the Almagest.
Roman Technology
Practical applications of science by the Romans, including aqueducts, roads, and the Julian calendar.
Julian Calendar
A calendar introduced by Julius Caesar, refined by Sosigenes, based on a 365 and 1/4 day solar year with a leap year every four years.
Gregorian Calendar
The reformed version of the Julian calendar by Pope Gregory XIII in the 16th century.
Providential view
A perspective on time and history that believes events are controlled by a higher force, such as God, with a specific beginning and end.
Progressive view
A perspective on time and history that asserts people are in control and can make a difference through reason, logic, and technology to improve the world.
Devolution
The belief that there was a wonderful period in the past when people were in harmony with God, with the idea that the past was great and the future is worse.
Cyclical
A view of history where events are believed to move in a cycle, such as in American Indian religions or ancient Chinese beliefs.
Functional Model
The concept that all religions serve the purpose of revealing ultimate reality beyond what the senses can perceive, often involving metaphysics and spiritual worlds.
Theodicy
The explanation for why bad things happen, including the question of why the innocent suffer, as seen in various religious beliefs like Buddhism.
Sacrifice
An ancient communal activity aimed at purging a community of sin and wrongdoing, often used as a method to interact with other people in religious contexts.
Kosher
Dietary laws followed by Jews, regulating food preparation and consumption, including restrictions like avoiding pork.
Eschatological
Relating to beliefs about death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul and humanity, often found in religious teachings about the end times.
Anthropomorphic
Describing gods or deities with human characteristics or forms, as seen in Greek religion where gods were depicted with human emotions and behaviors.
Greek religion on death
The belief that the spirit lives beyond death but in a shadowy, colorless existence, with greatness achieved through honorable deeds in life.
Epicureanism
Philosophy founded by Epicurus advocating pleasure as the main goal, achieved through prudence, moderation, and cultivation of social and cultural life.
Stoicism
Philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium emphasizing virtue, self-sufficiency, and living in harmony with the rationality of the cosmos.
Zeno of Citium
Founder of Stoicism, preaching the acquisition of perfect virtue for self-sufficiency and harmony with the universe.
Middle Ages
The period from AD 500 to AD 1300, often referred to as the "Dark Ages" from 300 to 1000 AD due to limited sources and lack of knowledge.
Dark Ages
The period from 300 to 1000 AD within the Middle Ages, characterized by waning urban life, plummeting literacy rates, and isolation from the rest of the world.
High Middle Ages
A period within the Middle Ages where focus is on the 11th to 13th centuries, marked by significant developments in urban life, trade, and the arts.
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