AP Psych 1A

biological psychologists

biological psychologists

people who engage in the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes and electrical messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

all-or-nothing response

a neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonists

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared)

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (Your PARents come home and calm you down)

reflex arc

the neural pathway that controls a reflex action, where sensory information is received by the nervous system and a motor response is initiated without conscious brain processing,

Endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Pituitary gland

"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland

under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion

tissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused distruction/remove of brain tissues

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of brain. AKA reticular formation, or reticular activating system. In charge of automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

the brains 'sensory switch board' Located at top of brainstem; directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

Plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic system

A system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion. Includes rage and fear.

Hippocampus

Limbic system. Learning and memory matcher.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Cerebral cortex

Fabric of interconnected neuron cells. Higher order thinking. Takes meaning and puts it to focus. The body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Frontal Lobe (aKa prefrontal cortex)

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

Parietal lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. Receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual feild.

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughyl above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which revieves aditory info primarily from the opposite end.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us, Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

identical twins (monozygotic)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins (dizygotic)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

evolutionary psychologists

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

natural selection

the principle that, among range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

mutations

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression.

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food.)

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

Oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body's natural Enorphin supply.

Nature and Nurture

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Genetic predisposition

an increased likelihood of developing a particular disease based on a person's genetic makeup

Eugenics

the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics

evolutionary perspective

the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

twin studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

resting potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane. Positive outside, negative inside state.

firing threshold

the minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse, causing a neuron to fire an action potential

multiple sclerosis

myelin sheath destruction. disruptions in nerve impulse conduction

myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetycholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Adrenaline

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion.

Leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

reward center

a dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

hemispheres

we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe