Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Affect

the feelings and emotions that people experience, and how a clinician interprets a client's expression of those feelings through non-verbal language

Physiological experiences

internal factors regulated by the autonomic nervous system (e.g., heart rate, perspiration, stomach activity) that influence emotion

Cognitive experiences

how people think about and interpret external stimuli and how their thoughts influence the emotions they feel

Cognitive label

According to the Schachter-Singer's theory, a person experiences an emotion when they have a physiological response and label it

Facial-feedback hypothesis

the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

Cognitive appraisal

the process of interpreting an event, which leads to an emotional response (i.e., emotions are directly tied to how a person evaluates a situation)

Display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate as emotional responses

Emotional elicitors

facial expressions that can trigger a response similar to other emotional stimuli that have the same valence (e.g., a disgusted face can elicit a similar response to a dirty toilet)

Broaden-and-build theory of emotion

states that positive emotion leads people to explore and develop new skills and resources, which in turn lead to more positive emotions and better health

Drive-reduction theory

states that motivation comes from biological needs or drives that cause people to act in ways that restore balance

Homeostasis

the tendency of the human body to seek balance, equilibrium, and stability

Arousal theory

people's tendency to maintain a balance of arousal and excitement to avoid boredom and apathy with each person having their own optimal level of arousal

Optimal level of arousal

the psychological state where a person feels alert and engaged--but not stressed--and is able to perform at their best

Yerkes-Dodson Law

states that performance improves with arousal, but only up to a certain point

Self-determination theory

suggests that all humans have three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—and that people feel more motivated to take action when they believe their choices will have an effect on the outcome

Intrinsic motivation

the drive to complete a task because it is personally rewarding and internally satisfying

Extrinsic motivation

the drive to participate in an activity in order to achieve an external goal, such as receiving a reward or avoiding punishment

Incentive theory

a theory of motivation stating that behavior is motivated by the desire to attain rewards and avoid punishments

Instincts

inborn, fixed patterns of behavior in response to certain stimuli; don't require conscious thought

Lewin's motivational conflicts theory

states that conflicts between undesirable alternatives are more difficult to resolve than conflicts between desirable alternatives

Approach-approach conflicts

these conflicts occur when a person must choose between two equally appealing options

Approach-avoidance conflicts

these conflicts occur when a goal has both positive and negative aspects (there are advantages and disadvantages to both approaching and avoiding the goal)

Avoidance-avoidance conflicts

these conflicts occur when a person must choose between two undesirable options

Sensation-seeking theory

explains a tendency to seek out novel, complex, and intense experiences and sensations, and to take risks to satisfy this desire

Thrill seeking

the tendency to pursue new and different sensations, feelings, and experiences which often involve a degree of risk

Adventure seeking

the tendency to participate in an unusual, exciting, and potentially dangerous journey or series of events

Disinhibition

a lack of restraint that involves impulsivity, poor risk assessment, and a disregard of social conventions

Boredom susceptibility

an aversion to repetitive experiences, routine work, and predictable people with a reaction of restless discontent when exposed to such situations

Hunger

a natural physical drive to avoid starvation that is controlled by hormones, such as ghrelin and leptin (regulated by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland)

Satiety

the state of being satisfactorily full and unable to consume more food (controlled by hormones such as ghrelin and leptin and regulated by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland)

Social-cognitive theory

a psychological theory that emphasized the dynamic interaction between people (personal factors), their behavior, and their environments

Reciprocal determinism

the idea that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and their social environment

Self-concept

the overall view a person has of themselves, including their beliefs, physical and mental attributes, and social interactions

Self-efficacy

a person's belief in their ability to perform a task or reach a goal

Self-esteem

the degree of confidence and value a person has for themselves

Trait theories

categorizes and describes the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior

Big Five theory

identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences in personality (agreeableness, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (neuroticism))

Agreeableness

a person's concern for social harmony and their tendency to get along with others

Extraversion

describes people who are sociable, talkative, assertive, and active

Conscientiousness

describes a person's level of organization, persistence, and motivation to accomplish a goal

Openness to experience

describes how open-minded, imaginative, creative, and insightful a person is

Emotional Stability

the extent to which people feel secure and unworried and how likely they are to experience negative emotions under pressure

Personality inventories

an assessment tool (usually a questionnaire that measures and evaluates an individual's personality, such as traits, behaviors, and attitudes

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a personality test to identify things that help interpret a person's total score

Psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

Unconscious processes

mental activities that occur outside of a person's awareness, such as thoughts, desires, and memories that are hidden from conscious thought

Ego defense mechanisms

things that protect the conscious mind from the anxiety that arises from unacceptable impulses

Denial

a defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities

Displacement

defense mechanism in which a person redirects a negative emotion from its original source to a less threatening recipient (e.g., a person angry at their boss may "take out" their anger on a family member)

Projection

a defense mechanism that directs things a person doesn't like about themself toward someone else (e.g., a cheating spouse suspects their partner is being unfaithful)

Rationalization

a defense mechanism in which people justify unwanted feelings with seemingly logical explanations (e.g., a student who is rejected from their dream college may say they are happy to attend a school that's less competitive and more welcoming)

Reaction formation

a defense mechanism in which a person expresses an exaggerated, opposite version of how they actually feel

Regression

a defense mechanism in which an anxious individual retreats to an earlier stage of development (e.g., a first grader reverts to thumb sucking because they have anxiety about school)

Repression

a defense mechanism in which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious

Sublimation

when a person redirects unacceptable feelings into a socially acceptable activity (e.g. after being fired, a person puts more effort into caring for their family)

Projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to a person and asks them to respond with whatever comes to mind

Preconscious mind

Freud's term for memories that are not presently at the level of awareness but can accessed

Unconscious mind

Freud's term for the thoughts, desires, and urges that are actively repressed from consciousness and that affect mental activity outside of active awareness

humanistic psychology

studies the whole person by looking at behavior through the eyes of the person doing the behaving with the goal of developing a healthy sense of self

Unconditional regard

a client-centered technique in which a therapist shows positive feelings and acceptance to the client, regardless of what the client says or does

Self-actualizing tendency

a desire that pushes a person to grow, to be creative, and to reach their full potential

Social norms

the unwritten rules and expectations that dictate how individuals should behave in a particular social group or society

Social influence theory

the idea that a person's behavior can be heavily influenced by the ideas and actions of others

Normative social influence

factors that influence a person to conform in order to be accepted and belong to a group

Informational social influence

when people conform because they believe the group is competent and has the correct information, particularly when the situation is ambiguous

Persuasion

strategies used to influence someone's attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or decisions

Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

analyzes the variables that cause long-term and short-term attitude changes to understand the effectiveness of persuasive messaging

Central route

a method of persuasion that uses evidence and logical arguments to influence people, often resulting in a lasting attitude change

Peripheral route

focuses on factors other than the message itself because the recipient has little or no interest in the subject and/or has a lesser ability to process the message, often resulting in a temporary attitude change

Halo effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Foot-in-the-door technique

persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one

Door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request the person is hoping to have granted

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Obedience

a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of a social group and defining one's identity accordingly

Multiculturalism

a situation in which distinct cultural groups in a society share equal value

Group polarization

when a group's decision making process results in a more extreme decision than its members would have made if deciding on their own

Groupthink

when members of a group conform to majority opinion to maintain group harmony rather than stating their own views

Diffusion of responsibility

the more onlookers there are, the less personal responsibility individuals will feel to take action

Social loafing

the tendency for people to put in less effort when working on a task as a group, compared to when working alone

Deindividuation

when individuals lose self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations and engage in impulsive, deviant, and sometimes violent acts

Social facilitation

a phenomenon where people show increased levels of effort and performance when in the presence of others

False consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share one's own beliefs and behaviors

Superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Social traps

decisions by individuals or groups that seem good and produce a short-term benefit, but that hurt society in the long run

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

researchers and practitioners who use the principles of social psychology to improve the workplace (e.g., job satisfaction, employee retention, productivity)

Burnout

a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term exposure to a stressful situation (e.g., a demanding job) and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

Altruism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others

Prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior (the opposite of antisocial behavior)

Social debt

when people act in a prosocial way because they have been helped by others in the past (paying it forward) or by feeling responsible for the common good of society (doing my part)

Social reciprocity norm

the idea that a person is motivated to do good things because others have shown acts of kindness to them in the past

Social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them or those who need assistance even if doing so may not offer any visible reward

Bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Situational variables

factors in a particular context that can impact an individual's likelihood of helping another person

Attentional variables

elements of attention that can impact an individual's likelihood of helping another person

Stereotype

a widely held but fixed and oversimplified belief about a group of people or things

Prejudice

an unjustified judgment, opinion, or attitude directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Implicit attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level