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Identity
Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Social identity
The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” That comes from our group memberships
Intimacy
In Erikson’s theory; the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
Emerging adulthood
A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
Social clock
The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Learning
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Respondent behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
Cognitive learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)
Behaviorism
The view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree to (1) but not (2)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (Such as food)
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditional response (UCR).
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditional stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neural stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning the strengthening of a reinforced response.)
high-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, a tone predicts food might then learn a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning)
extinction
in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.
generalization
(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival mode
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached deices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as rewards or praise, strengthening the response by being presented after the response.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response strengthens the response. (not punishment)
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (Also known as a secondary reinforcer)
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
instinctive drift
the tendency of learned behaviors to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
observational learning
learning by observing others (also called social learning)
Social learning
learning by observing others (also called observational learning)
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior exhibited by others.
cognitive map
a mental representation of one's environment, allowing for navigation and understanding of spatial relationships.
latent learning
a type of learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.
insight learning
a type of problem solving that occurs when the solution suddenly comes to mind, often after a period of contemplation/strategy-based-thinking.
mirror neurons
neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of anther’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
antisocial behavior
negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slow acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
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