U3b Vocab: Development & Learning (AP Psychology Meyers 2024 Edition)

Identity

Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Social identity

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” That comes from our group memberships

Intimacy

In Erikson’s theory; the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

Emerging adulthood

A period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.

Social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Behaviorism

The view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree to (1) but not (2)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (Such as food)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditional response (UCR).

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditional stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neural stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

high-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, a tone predicts food might then learn a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning)

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

generalization

(also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival mode

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached deices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as rewards or praise, strengthening the response by being presented after the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response strengthens the response. (not punishment)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (Also known as a secondary reinforcer)

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behaviors to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

observational learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning)

Social learning

learning by observing others (also called observational learning)

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior exhibited by others.

cognitive map

a mental representation of one's environment, allowing for navigation and understanding of spatial relationships.

latent learning

a type of learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.

insight learning

a type of problem solving that occurs when the solution suddenly comes to mind, often after a period of contemplation/strategy-based-thinking.

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of anther’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slow acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

delayed conditioning

Present NS, while NS is still there, present UCS.(Had metronome before and during feeding)

Trace conditioning

Present NS, short break, then present UC (Had metronome playing before feeding)

Simultaneous Conditioning

NS and UCS are presented at the same time (As soon as beginning to feed)

Backward Conditioning

UCS is presented, then NS is presented

First-Order Conditioning

Bell + meat = salivation → bell = salivation

Second order conditioning

light + bell = salivation → light = Salivation

Garcia Koelling effect

Learned taste aversion — garcia and koelling rat experiment

Instrumental learning

puzzle cat box showed that:

• Behavior changes because of consequences

• Rewards strengthen behavior

• Unpleasant consequences decrease behavior

this process is known as

Edward Thorndike

Cat in box experiment scientist

B.F. Skinner

Which scientist had the operant chambers in their experiments?

Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees

Who figured out the the insight learning type of problem solving

Edward Thorndike, Law of effect

Who proposed responses followed by satisfying consequences became more likely to occur while those followed by unpleasant consequenses became less likely?

also what was his law called?

Pavlov

Who had a dog experiment and basically invented classical conditioning?

Albert Bandura

Who conducted the Bobo doll experiment?

Observational learning

What did the bobo doll experiment show?

Toleman

Who experimented with rats in a maze?

latent learning and cognitive maps

What did Toleman’s rats in a maze experiment show

John Watson

Who conducted the little albert experiment?