PSYCHOLOGY TERMS II

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behavior that can be objectively measured, emerging from the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior, emerging from Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious conflicts determining behavior and personality, founded by Sigmund Freud.

Cognitive Perspective

Compares the mind to a computer, focusing on how it encodes, processes, and stores information.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes genetics, brain structures, and individual nerve cell functions.

Evolutionary Perspective

Highlights natural selection and adaptation's role in the evolution of behavior and mental processes, influenced by Charles Darwin.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The factor measured by the experimenter, affected by the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group exposed to all conditions except the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

Unwanted variables that influence the outcome of an experiment, also known as extraneous variables.

Double-Blind Study

A procedure where neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single research participant or experience.

Correlation Research

Observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find relationships without direct manipulation.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Mean

A measure of central tendency that represents the average score.

Median

A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution in half.

Mode

A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A measure of variability indicating the average differences between scores and their mean.

Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.

P-Value

The probability of concluding a difference exists when it does not; a statistically significant difference shows up 5% of the time or less.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response

An unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that does not produce a conditioned response prior to learning.

Conditioned Stimulus

Originally a neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response

A learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when stimuli similar to the original stimulus elicit the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process shaped by consequences (rewards or punishments) following a response.

Reinforcement

Strengthens a response, making it more likely to occur.

Positive Reinforcement

Addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removal of a stimulus following a behavior.

Premack Principle

Opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Shaping

Strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations until the entire correct routine is displayed.

Punishment

A process where a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence, decreasing the likelihood of repetition.

Positive Punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response.

Negative Punishment

Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response.

Observational Learning

Learning that occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling their behavior.

Longitudinal Method

Measures a single individual or group over time.

Cross-Sectional Method

Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

Absorbing new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when not directly observable.

Irreversibility

Inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.

Conservation

Understanding that certain physical characteristics remain unchanged despite outward appearance.

Permissive Style of Parenting

Parents set few firm rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions.

Authoritative Style of Parenting

Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child’s viewpoint.

Authoritarian Style of Parenting

Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's perspective.

Psychological Stages

Erik Erikson’s theory of eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis.

Heinz Dilemma

A question by Kohlberg about morality and ethics regarding a situation where a person may need to steal a drug.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s first developmental stage; the child interacts with the environment.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget’s second stage; the child begins to interpret the world symbolically, but struggles with conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s third stage; the child understands conservation and object permanence.

Formal Operation Stage

Piaget’s final stage; represents adulthood in cognitive development.

Animistic Thinking

When a child attributes feelings or emotions to inanimate objects.

Egocentrism

When a child cannot understand another's point of view.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Erikson’s first developmental crisis, where the child begins to interact with the environment.

Autonomy vs. Shame

Erikson’s second developmental crisis; the child learns to use the restroom independently.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikson’s third developmental crisis; the child develops problem-solving skills and worldview.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to take credit for successes while attributing failures to external factors.

Bystander Effect

The tendency to be less likely to assist in emergencies when others are present.

Groupthink

Cohesive decision-making groups that ignore reasonable alternatives.

Conformity

The tendency to adopt the behaviors and beliefs of others in a group.

Obedience

Performing actions in response to direct orders from authority.

Forebrain

Includes structures like the thalamus and hypothalamus, regulating emotions.

Midbrain

Supports functions like vision and hearing, including the reticular formation.

Hindbrain

The primitive part of the brain that regulates vital processes.

Medulla Oblongata

Controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.

Cerebellum

Coordinates habitual muscle movements and looks like a smaller brain.

Amygdala

Vital to basic emotions located within the limbic system.

Pons

Connects hindbrain to midbrain and forebrain; controls facial expressions.

Hippocampus

Processes memories and sends them to the cerebral cortex.

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of nerves connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Thalamus

Receives sensory signals and sends them to appropriate forebrain areas.

Hypothalamus

Controls metabolic functions like temperature and hunger.

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Endocrine System

Secretes hormones affecting biological processes, controlled by the hypothalamus.

Limbic System

Group of brain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.