PSYCHOLOGY TERMS II

Behavioral Perspective:

Emerged from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.  Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured.

Humanistic Perspective:

Emerged from the pioneering work of Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow.  Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective:

Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud.  Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.

Cognitive Perspective:

Influenced by the computer revolution, the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes, process, and stores information.  Cognitive processing.

Biological Perspective:

Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.

Evolutionary Perspective:

Influenced by the seminal writings of Charles Darwin.  Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes.

RESEARCH METHODS

Independent Variable:

The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable:

The factor that is measured by the experimenter.  It is affected by, and thus depends on, the independent variable.

Experimental Group:

Group that is exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group:

Group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable.

Confounding Variable:

Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment (also known as extraneous variables).

Double-Blind Study:

A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment.  Designed to reduce experimenter bias.

Case Study:

An in-depth examination of a single research participant or single experience.

Correlation Research:

The researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them.  In correlation research, the researcher does not directly manipulate the variables.

Correlation Coefficient:

A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.  

Mean:

A measure of central tendency that provides the average score.  Any change in the highest score in a distribution must result in a change in the mean.

Median:

A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half.

Mode:

A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation:

A measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean.

Normal Distribution:

A bell shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population.  In a normal distribution, half the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean.

P-Value:

The probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist.  A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance.  By consensus, a statistically significant difference is one that would show up only 5 percent of the time or less.  The smaller the p-value the more significant the results.

LEARNING

Classical Conditioning:

Based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov.  The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus:

A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning.

Unconditioned Response:

An unlearned response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus:

A stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning.

Conditioned Stimulus:

The conditioned stimulus was originally the neutral stimulus. When systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as it gains the power to cause a response.

Conditioned Response:

A conditioned response is a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction:

The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization:

Occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.  

Stimulus Discrimination:

The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning:

A learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response.  

Reinforcement:

Strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.

Positive Reinforcement:

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. 

Negative Reinforcement:

A situation in which a behavior or response if followed by the removal of a stimulus.

Premack Principle:

States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Shaping:

The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed.

Punishment:

Punishment is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

Positive Punishment:

Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and make it less likely to recur.

Negative Punishment:

Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and make it less likely to recur.

Observational Learning:

Occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Longitudinal Method:

Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time.

Cross-Sectional Method:

Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time.

Schema:

A concept of framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation:

The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation:

The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information.

Object Permanence:

An infant’s understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched.

Irreversibility:

The child’s inability to mentally revers a sequence of events or logical operations.

Conservation:

Understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes.

Permissive Style of Parenting:

Parents set few firm rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions.

Authoritative Style of Parenting:

Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child’s viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior.

Authoritarian Style of Parenting:

Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child’s point of view.

Psychological Stages:

Erik Erikson’s theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved.

Heinz Dilemma:  

Question posed by Kohlberg concerning morality and ethics, concerning a situation where an individual may have to steal a drug.

Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage in Piaget’s theories of development; the child begins to interact with the environment.

Preoperational Stage: 

The second stage in Piaget’s theories of development; the child begins to interpret the world symbolically, but has not necessarily figured out conservation

Concrete Operational Stage: 

The third stage in Piaget’s theories of development; the child figures out conservation and object permanence at or before this stage.

Formal Operation Stage: 

The final stage in Piaget’s theories of development; adulthood

Animistic Thinking: 

Occurs when child attributes feelings and/or emotions to inanimate objects or concepts such as “the sky is happy today”

Egocentrism: 

Occurs when child cannot view another point of view, or believes a perfect present for another person is the present they would like to receive themselves.

Trust vs. Mistrust: 

Crisis tied to Eikson’s first stage of development in which the child begins to interact with the environment.

Autonomy vs. Shame: 

Crisis tied to Erikson’s second stage of development in which the child is usually trained to use the restroom by themselves.

Initiative vs. Guilt: 

Crisis tied to Erikson’s third stage of development in which the child develops problem solving and views of the world around them. 

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Self-Serving Bias:

The widespread tendency for people to take credit for their successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control.

Bystander Effect:

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present.

Groupthink:

The tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives. 

Conformity:

The tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group.

Obedience:

The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status. 

MAJOR DIVISIONS AND PARTS OF THE BRAIN (PART II)

Forebrain: structures include the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus, with the latter three forming part of the limbic system which regulates emotions such as fear and rage.

Midbrain:  Made up of several smaller structures and supports multiple functions such as vision, hearing, motor control (especially eye movement), sleeping and waking, alertness, and temperature regulation. Includes the important reticular formation that controls the body’s general arousal and our ability to focus.  

Hindbrain: The most primitive part of the brain overall that regulates all of our most vital processes (such as automatic/involuntary functions like breathing and blood pressure, as well as hearing, equilibrium, facial movements, and balance) with three structures: the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Medulla Oblongata: Located at the base of the brain, this is involved in control of our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.

Cerebellum: Located at the bottom rear of the brain, this coordinates some habitual muscle movements, such as tracking a target with our eyes or playing the saxophone; looks like a smaller version of our brain and name means “Little Brain”

Amygdala: Small area of the brain within the limbic system that is vital to our experiences of basic emotions, such as fear and aggression.

Pons:  Located just above the medulla and toward the front, this connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain; Involved in the control of facial expressions and sleep regulation.

Hippocampus: Located in the limbic system, memories are processed through this area and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage.

Corpus Callosum: a collection or bundle of nerves that connects the two brain hemispheres

Thalamus: Located on top of the brain stem, this is responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain; involved with sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning, and memory.

Hypothalamus:  Small structure next to the Thalamus that controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.

OTHER SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Central Nervous System:  Part of the nervous system that consists of our brain and spinal in which all the nerves are housed within bone (the skull and vertebrae).

Endocrine System:  System of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies; controlled by the hypothalamus

Limbic System: Name for a group of brain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.