AP Psych WC-5

Stability vs. Change

To what extent do out personality and behaviors remain consistent over time, and to what extent do they change?

Nature v. Nurture

Central debate on the relative influence of genetic inheritance and environmental factors on behavior and development

Continuous Development

Development occurs gradually and continuously

Discontinuous development

Development occurs in distinct, separate stages

Cross sectional study

A research method that analyzes data from a population at one specific point in time. Involves comparing different groups at the same time to observe variations, but cannot establish cause-and-effect or track long-term trends

Cohort effect

Where differences are due to the specific generation studied rather than developmental changes

Longitudinal Study

Studying the same group over a considerable span of time

Teratogen

Any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter fetal development or growth. Their impact is highly dependent on the type of agent, dose, duration, and timing of exposure. Embryonic period (first 8 weeks) is the most vulnerable

• Alcohol

• Thalidomide (drug causing limb deformities)

• Rubella (infectious agent causing deafness and heart defects)

Maternal Illness

Pre-existing or newly acquired health conditions in the mother that can affect the intrauterine environment

• Uncontrolled diabetes

• Zika Virus

• Stress/Depression

Genetic Mutation

Permanent changes in the DNA sequence of genes or alterations in chromosome number/structure. (Inherited or spontaneous (de novo))

• Down Syndrome

• C.F.

• Achondroplasia

Hormonal Factors

Imbalances or atypical levels or hormones either maternal or fetal

• High Cortisol Exposure (low birth weight and behavior issues)

• Insufficient Thyroid hormones (brain dev.)

• Insulin-like Growth Factors (Intrauterine Growth Restriction)

Environmental Factors

External influences that affect the pregnant person and eventually the fetus

Reflex

Can indicate neurological dysfunction if not detected and displayed at proper times

Palmar Grasp

Primitive reflex where the infant’s fingers instinctively curl around the object that firmly touches their palm

Babinski Reflex

When stroked from heel to toe, the baby’s dorsiflexes and the other toes fan out.

Rooting reflex

Touching or stroking the baby’s cheek will cause them to turn their head in that direction and open their mouth ready to latch

Moro Reflex

Reflex in response to sudden loud noise, bright light, or sensation of falling.

• Baby head shifts backward and fling their limbs out and bring them back in

Two Insights of Human development studies

• dev. is sequential

• general order is consistent, the timing varies

Gross motor skills

large muscle movements

• Roll - Rock - Crawl - Walk - Run

Fine motor skills

precise muscle movements

• writing, drawing, utensil use

Visual Cliff

Shows the development of depth perception

Sensitive periods

developmental window during which the brain is particularly responsive to experiences

Critical period

Window when the presence or absence of an experience results in irreversible change

Imprinting

A type learning where certain animals form a strong attachment to the first moving object the see post birth/hatch during a critical period early in life

• HUMANS DO NOT DO THIS

Physical and Psych Milestones

Growth Spurt, Puberty (Reproductive ability, Menarche & spermarche, and primary/secondary sex characteristics)

Primary Sex Characteristics

Assigned at birth, Involved in reproduction, e.g genitals/gonads

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Developed during reproduction, not directly involved in reproduction, e.g. breast dev. , facial/body hair, voice change, menstruation

Spermarche

First ejaculation, marks the onset of sperm production

Menarche

Onset of the first menstrual period, marks the beginning of the “reproductive years”

Adulthood

Steady decline in reproductive ability (menopause), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, senses (vision and hearing)

Biological Sex

Chromosomes, gonads, hormones

Variations of Bio. Sex

intersex, Androgen Insensitivity syndrome, turner syndrome (45, x, karyotype), klinefelter syndrome (classic: 47, XXY; All cells have extra X | Mosaic: 46, XY/47, XXY)

Gender

society, culture, time

Gender schema theory

Children form schemas by observing societal gender roles, which then influence their perceptions, behaviors, and beliefs about themselves and others

• These schemas start forming in early childhood and shape how they interpret the world, with effects that can continue throughout their lives

Socialization Factors

family, schools, peers, mass media

Gender Roles

The pattern of behavior, personality traits, and attitudes that define masculinity, femininity, or additional recognized genders in a particular culture.

• frequently considered to be the external manifestation of internalized gender identity, although the two are not necessarily consistent with one another. 

Gender Stereotypes

A relatively fixed, overly simplified concept of the attitudes and behaviors considered normal and appropriate for male, female, transgender, and non binary identities in a particular culture. Western culture tends to employ gender stereotypes for men and women to enforce a gender binary. Gender stereotypes often support the social conditioning of gender roles. 

• Personality traits

• Domestic behaviors

• Occupations

• Physical appearance — For example, women are expected to be thin and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men and women are also expected to dress and groom in ways that are stereotypical to their gender (men wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing dresses and make-up
  

These exaggerated gender stereotypes can make relationships between people difficult. Hyperfeminine folks are Hypermasculine folks are more likely to be physically and emotionally abusive to their partners.

Hyperfemininity

The exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to be feminine. These folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be feminine. This may include being passive, naive, sexually inexperienced, soft, flirtatious, graceful, nurturing, and accepting.

• more likely to endure physical and emotional abuse from their partners.

Hypermasculinity

the exaggeration of stereotyped behavior that’s believed to be masculine. These folks exaggerate the qualities they believe to be masculine. They believe they’re supposed to compete with other men and dominate feminine folks by being aggressive, worldly, sexually experienced, insensitive, physically imposing, ambitious, and demanding.

• are more likely to be physically and emotionally abusive to their partners.

Gender non-conformity

individuals whose gender expression and/or gender identity differs from the conventional gender stereotypes or norms.

Androgyny

the presence of masculinity and femininity in one individual, expressed through gender identity, gender expression, sexual orientation, or other characteristics.

Transgender

term is used broadly as an umbrella term to describe anyone whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth. This term can also be used to convey a gender identity that is “opposite” or “across from” the sex an individual was assigned at birth

Gender Dysphoria

• The necessity of a psychiatric diagnosis remains controversial, as both psychiatric and medical authorities recommend individualized medical treatment through hormones and/or surgeries to treat this

• Some transgender advocates believe the inclusion of this in the DSM is necessary in order to advocate for health insurance that covers the medically necessary treatment recommended for transgender people. This shift reflects recognition that the disagreement between birth gender and identity may not necessarily be pathological if it does not cause the individual distress.

Sexual Orientation

the nature of a person’s enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others. Development, nature, and fluidity of orientation differ between genders and individuals.

Origins of Sexual Orientation?

Correlations: (We have no causation)

Thought specific gene on the X chromosome is associated- could not find evidence for this

Hypothalamus upon autopsy shows a difference between hetero and homosexual men

Identical (52%) vs. fraternal twins (22%) if one identified as having exclusively same-sex attraction

Strong evidence for prenatal and genetic influences: Too much of androgens for females in utero

Jean Piaget

Defined intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment through an equilibration process

Sensorimotor key characterisitcs

0-2 years

Reliance on senses

Development of object permanence

Preoperational key characteristics 

2-7

Mental symbols —> pretend play

Animism

Egocentrism

Reversibility

Theory of mind

Difficulty understanding conservation and logic

Concrete Operational Key Characteristics

7-11 years

Conservation

Reversibility

Multicategorical

Logical though

Systematic thinking

Formal Operational Characteristics

12+

Abstract thinking

Hypothetical reasoning

Future and moral issues

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

• sensorimotor stage (birth to approx 2 years).

Hidden Object Task

Hiding a toy under a blanket while a baby watches. If the baby actively searches for the toy, they have object permanence.

Egocentrism

he inability to see a situation or understand a concept from another person's perspective. The child assumes others see, feel, and think exactly as they do.

• characteristic of the preoperational stage approx 2 to 7 years).

Three Mountains Task

A child sits on one side of a model of three mountains and is asked to describe what a doll sitting on another side of the model can see. An egocentric child will describe the view from their own per

Theory of Mind

The ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, and knowledge—to oneself and to others, and to understand that others' beliefs and perspectives can be different from one's own.

The Sally-Anne Test (False Belief Task):

Sally puts a marble in her basket and leaves. Anne moves the marble to her box. Sally returns. The child is asked: "Where will Sally look for her marble?" A child with Theory of Mind answers "in the basket," knowing Sally has a false belief.

Classification

The ability to group objects based on common characteristics and to understand that a subcategory is part of a larger category (e.g., roses are flowers, and flowers are plants).

• develops in concrete operational stage (approx 7 to 11 years).

Class Inclusion Task

Presenting a child with a group of objects, such as 20 wooden beads, 18 of which are brown and 2 are white. The child is asked: "Are there more brown beads or more wooden beads?"

Seriation

The ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length, weight, or height (e.g., arranging sticks from shortest to longest).

• develops in the concrete operational stage.

Ordering Sticks/Rods

A child is given 10 sticks of varying lengths and asked to arrange them in order from shortest to longest.

Conservation

The understanding that physical properties (like number, mass, volume, or length) remain the same despite changes in the object's appearance or form.

• A child masters this during the concrete operational stage.

Conservation of Liquid Volume Task:

Showing a child two identical glasses with the same amount of water. Then, pouring the water from one glass into a tall, narrow glass. The child is asked if the two containers still have the same amount of water.

Reversibility

The understanding that a change in the state of an object can be reversed to its original condition.

• This is a key mental operation acquired in the concrete operational stage.

Conservation Tasks (Implicit):

When a child is asked to mentally pour the liquid back into the original glass (as in the Conservation of Liquid Volume Task), they are demonstrating the mental operation of reversibility.

Sociocultural Theory

emphasizes the crucial role of social interaction, culture, and language in shaping cognitive development

Zone of proximal development (ZPD

the area of knowledge just beyond a child’s abilities.

• Vygotsky: children learn best when they encounter information at this level and can interact with a more skilled person.

Scaffolding

the kind of support adults and teachers present when they provide progressively more difficult problems or ask children to explain their reasoning for learning (within the ZPD)

• enables children to work independently but with help so they can solve problems and develop their cognitive abilities more generally.

Lower Limit

where you cannot do something alone

Upper limit

Can do something with help

More Knowledgeable Others

those that are helping you learn

Dementia

A generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function, such as language and an executive function, due to a variety of causes

Language

A shared mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas.

Phonemes

Smallest unit of sound (p, a, th, s)

Morphemes

Smallest unit of MEANINGFUL sound (-ing, pre-, -s, -ed)

Syntax

Set of rules for arranging words 

Grammar

System of rules for a language

Semantics

The actual meaning of the words being used and the sentences they create.

Surface Structure

the literal, spoken or written form of a sentence,

Deep structure

is the underlying meaning or semantic content.

Pre-Linguistic Communication

Before developing formal language, individuals primarily communicate through nonverbal methods like crying, gestures, and facial expressions

Cooing Stage

Infants produce vowel-like sounds

Babbling Stage

an infant spontaneously utters various sounds (phonemes)

One-word Stage

which a child speaks mostly in single words

• Learned that sounds carry meanings

Telegraphic Speech

The two-word stage produces sentences in which a child speaks like a

telegram—

“go car”

Holophrases

Single word that conveys a complete idea or sentiment, most often used by infants in the early stages of language acquisition (around 12–18 months)

Ecological Systems Theory

states that an individual's development is shaped by the interaction between the person and their environment

Microsystem

Immediate environment

Mesosystem

Connections between environments

Exosystem

Indirect environments

Macrosystems

Social and cultural values

Chronosystem

changes over time

Authoritarian

High expectations

Low emotional support

Authoritative

High expectations

High emotional support

Permissive

Low expectations

High emotional support

Negligent

Low/ No expectations

Low/No emotional support