Unit Zero & Psychology Core Concepts Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, theories, and concepts from the provided psychology notes.

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation or educated guess that must be testable and falsifiable.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven false through evidence or testing.

Operational Definition

A precise, measurable definition of variables to allow replication and data collection.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data that describes qualities (e.g., eye color) and is not numerical.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically.

Population

Everyone to whom the research findings could potentially apply.

Sample

The subset of individuals chosen from the population for a study.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables; does not prove causation.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other in a correlation.

3rd Variable Problem

An outside variable may be causing both observed variables, creating a spurious relationship.

Positive Correlation

Variables increase or decrease together in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

Experimental Group

Participants who receive the treatment or manipulation of the IV.

Control Group

Participants who receive a baseline or placebo condition.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Placebo

An inert treatment given to control for expectations in an experiment.

Placebo Effect

Observed improvement due to beliefs about treatment, not the treatment itself.

Double-Blind

Neither participants nor researchers know which condition participants are in.

Single-Blind

Only participants are unaware of their condition; researchers know.

Confound

A variable that undermines a study’s internal validity by offering an alternative explanation.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to equalize groups and infer causality.

Random Sampling

Selecting participants from the population at random to generalize findings.

Naturalistic Observation

Studying behavior in its natural environment without intervention.

Case Study

Intense, detailed study of a single person or small group.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical method that combines results from multiple studies to detect overall effects.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize data (e.g., mean, median, mode, range).

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set.

Median

The middle value in a data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Bimodal

A distribution with two distinct modes.

Skew (Negative/Positive)

Direction in which data tail extends; negative skew has a longer left tail, positive skew a longer right tail.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values.

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean; measures data variability.

Inferential Statistics

Methods to infer population properties from a sample and assess significance.

Statistical Significance

A result unlikely due to chance, typically p < .05.

p < .05

Common threshold indicating statistical significance.

Effect Size

Magnitude of a relationship or difference, indicating practical significance.

IRB Approval

Ethics review board approval required to protect participants.

Confidentiality

Keeping participant identities and data private.

Informed Consent

Agreement to participate after being informed about the study.

Informed Assent

Consent from a minor plus parental permission to participate.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose and methods after participation.

Deception

Withholding information or misleading participants when justified by study aims.

No Harm

Ethical guideline to avoid physical or psychological harm.

Self-Report Bias

Inaccurate responses due to memory errors or social desirability.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to give socially acceptable responses rather than truthful ones.

Wording Effects

How question wording influences responses and answers.

Random Sample vs Random Assignment

Random Sample: generalizes to population; Random Assignment: supports cause/effect conclusions.

Neurotransmitter (NT)

Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Action Potential (AP)

Electrical impulse that travels along a neuron to transmit a signal.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord; processes information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside CNS; transmits information to/from CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

Voluntary control of body movements and sensory input.

Autonomic Nervous System

Involuntary control of bodily functions; includes sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates fight/flight responses; generally arouses the body.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after activation; rest/digest functions.

Neuron

Nerve cell; basic unit of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

Long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the soma.

Myelin Sheath

Insulating layer speeding up transmission along the axon.

Synapse

Gap between neurons where signaling occurs.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces neural excitability.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter involved in mood, emotion, and sleep.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter involved in memory and movement; affected in Alzheimer's.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in arousal and the sympathetic nervous system.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that reduce pain and produce euphoria.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.

Agonist

Drug or chemical that mimics a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

Drug or chemical that blocks a neurotransmitter's effects.

Reuptake

Process of reabsorbing released neurotransmitters back into the sending neuron.

Psychoactive Drugs

Drugs that alter perception, mood, or consciousness.

Depressants

Drugs that decrease NS activity (e.g., alcohol).

Stimulants

Drugs that increase NS activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

Hallucinogens

Drugs causing perceptual distortions (e.g., cannabis).

Opioids

Pain-relieving drugs that act on endorphin system (e.g., heroin).

Tolerance

needing more of a drug to achieve the same effect.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite negative consequences; withdrawal avoidance.

Withdrawal

Unpleasant symptoms when stopping a drug.

Cerebellum

Brain region important for movement, balance, and procedural memory.

Brainstem/Medulla

Controls basic life-sustaining functions (heart rate, breathing).

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Regulates arousal and alertness.”

Cerebral Cortex

Outer brain region responsible for higher-order thinking; contains lobes and connections.

Limbic System

Emotional brain; includes amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus.

Amygdala

Emotion processing, especially fear.

Hippocampus

Memory formation, especially episodic and semantic memory.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature; links to endocrine system.

Occipital Lobe

Brain region for visual processing.

Frontal Lobe

Executive functions, decision-making, planning, movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

Front part of frontal lobe; supports executive function.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch and spatial information.

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing and language; face recognition.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information (except smell).

Pituitary Gland

Master gland; releases hormones under hypothalamus control.

Oxytocin

Hormone related to bonding and social affiliation.

Melatonin

Hormone regulating sleep-wake cycles.

Leptin

Hormone signaling fullness; inhibits hunger.