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Unit Zero & Psychology Core Concepts Flashcards

Unit Zero: Research Design and Basic Vocabulary

  • Hypothesis: tentative explanation that must be falsifiable – capable of being supported or rejected
  • Operational Definition: clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables to allow replication and reliable data collection
  • Qualitative data: descriptive data (e.g., eye color)
  • Quantitative data: numerical data – ideal and necessary for statistics
  • Population: everyone the research could apply to
  • Sample: the people (or person) selected for the study

Research Designs

  • CORRELATION: identifies a relationship between two variables
    • Directionality problem: which direction does the correlation go? (e.g., depression could cause low self-esteem, low self-esteem could cause depression, or a 3rd variable could cause both)
    • 3rd variable problem: a different variable is responsible for the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and murders both rise in summer)
    • Positive Correlation: variables move together (both increase or both decrease)
    • Negative Correlation: one variable increases while the other decreases
    • The strength is indicated by the number; stronger relationships show tighter clusters on a graph; the magnitude is considered independent of the sign (cannot be < or > 1)
    • Stronger relationships = tighter clusters on a graph
  • Independent Variable (IV): intentionally manipulated by the researcher to look for an effect
    • Experimental Group: receives the treatment (one or more experimental groups)
    • Control Group: receives placebo/base condition (baseline)
  • Dependent Variable (DV): measured outcome; depends on the IV
  • Placebo Effect: observed effect caused by the placebo treatment; addressed with blinding
  • Blinding: can be Double-Blind (neither participant nor experimenter knows the condition) or Single-Blind (only participant is unaware in some designs)
  • Confound: an error/flaw accidentally introduced into a study (confounding variable)
  • Adv/Disadv of experiments: Adv: establish cause/effect; Disadv: may be unethical or too artificial
  • RANDOM ASSIGNMENT: random allocation to control/experimental groups to equalize groups and support causal claims
  • OTHER STUDY TYPES:
    • NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: observe people in natural settings; Adv: real-world validity; Disadv: no cause/effect
    • CASE STUDY: in-depth study of one person (or a few); Adv: rich data; Disadv: no causal conclusions
    • META-ANALYSIS: combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes
  • STATISTICS:
    • Descriptive stats show the shape of the data; Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode
    • Measures of Variation: Range, Standard Deviation (SD)
    • Inferential Statistics: determine significance (meaningfulness) of results
    • Statistical Significance: results not due to chance; experimental manipulation caused the difference in means; commonly p<0.05 (statistically significant); smaller p-values indicate stronger evidence
    • EFFECT SIZE: practical significance of the effect; larger is better
  • ETHICAL GUIDELINES (IRB APPROVAL NEEDED FOR PPL):
    • Confidentiality: names kept secret
    • Informed Consent: participants must agree to be part of the study
    • Informed Assent: minors and their parents/guardians must agree
    • Debriefing: participants told the true purpose after deception (if used)
    • Deception must be warranted; No harm (mental/physical)
  • SURVEYS: often yield correlation; subject to self-report bias and wording effects
    • Biases: Social desirability (people lie to look good); Wording effects (how questions are framed)
  • SAMPLES:
    • Random Sample: everyone has a chance to participate; increases generalizability
    • Representative Sample: mirrors the general population (ethnic, gender, age balance)
    • Convenience Sample: chosen by availability; less representative, less generalizable
    • Sampling bias: sample not representative due to convenience sampling
  • CULTURAL NORMS, EXPERIMENTER BIAS, AND COGNITIVE BIAS present in research
  • RESEARCH PRACTICES: peer review and adequate sample sizes improve reliability
  • NOTE: Do not mix Random Sample with Random Assignment: Sample -> generalize; Assignment -> cause/effect

Biological Basis: Heredity, Environment, and the Nervous System

  • Evolutionary psychology: natural selection influences behavior
  • Heredity (nature) vs Environment (nurture): both contribute; answer is both
    • Twin/Adoption Studies illustrate heritability vs environment effects
  • NERVOUS SYSTEM:
    • CENTRAL NS (CNS): Brain and spinal cord
    • PERIPHERAL NS (PNS): all other nerves; relays info to CNS
    • SOMATIC NS: voluntary movement; sensory and motor neurons
    • AUTONOMIC NS: involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc.)
      • SYMPATHETIC NS: fight/flight (activates; digestion exception)
      • PARASYMPATHETIC NS: rest/digest (inhibits; digestion exception)
  • NEURON AND NEURAL FIRING:
    • NEURON: basic cell of the NS
    • DENDRITES: receive incoming neurotransmitters (NTs)
    • AXON: action potential travels down
    • MYELIN SHEATH: speeds up AP along the axon; protects axon
    • SYNAPSE: gap between neurons
    • TYPES OF NEURONS:
    • SENSORY neurons: signal from environment to brain
    • MOTOR neurons: signal from brain to muscles
    • INTERNEURONS: in spinal cord/brain; reflex arcs
    • GLIA: support cells; provide nutrients and cleanup
  • NEURON FIRES WITH AN ACTION POTENTIAL:
    • Resting potential: approximately -70\text{ mV} when inactive
    • Depolarization: brief shift to positive charge
    • Threshold of depolarization: stimulus strength to trigger AP
    • All-or-Nothing: AP either fires fully or not at all; intensity/speed not increased by a stronger stimulus beyond threshold
    • Refractory period: neuron rest period before next AP
  • NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTs): chemicals released in synapse; classified as excitatory or inhibitory
    • GABA: major inhibitory NT
    • Glutamate: major excitatory NT
    • Dopamine: reward, movement; addiction associations
    • Serotonin: mood, emotion, sleep
    • Acetylcholine (ACh): memory and movement
    • Norepinephrine: sympathetic activation; depression associations when low
    • Endorphins: block pain
    • Substance P: pain regulation
  • HORMONES (vs NTs):
    • Oxytocin: social bonding, childbirth, lactation
    • Adrenaline (epinephrine): fight/flight
    • Leptin: satiety
    • Ghrelin: hunger
    • Melatonin: sleep regulation
  • AGONISTS vs ANTAGONISTS:
    • Agonist: mimics a NT
    • Antagonist: blocks a NT
  • REUPTAKE: NTs recycled back into the sending neuron; antidepressants often inhibit reuptake
  • PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
    • Depressants: decrease NS activity (e.g., alcohol)
    • Stimulants: increase NS activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine)
    • Hallucinogens: altered perceptions (e.g., marijuana)
    • Opioids: pain relief (endorphin agonists; e.g., heroin)
    • Tolerance: need more drug for the same effect
    • Addiction: dependence and withdrawal
    • Withdrawal: symptoms after stopping use
  • BRAIN REGIONS AND FUNCTIONS:
    • Cerebellum: movement, balance, coordination; procedural memory
    • Brainstem/Medulla: vital functions (heart rate, blood pressure, breathing)
    • Reticular Activating System (RAS): alertness and arousal
    • Cerebral Cortex: higher-order thought; limbic system and lobes
    • Limbic System:
    • Amygdala: emotions, fear
    • Hippocampus: episodic and semantic memory
    • Hypothalamus: reward/pleasure, eating, homeostasis; links to endocrine system
    • Occipital Lobe: vision
    • Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality; includes:
    • Prefrontal Cortex: executive function
    • Motor Cortex: map of motor control
    • Parietal Lobe: sensation; somatosensory cortex map of touch receptors
    • Temporal Lobe: hearing and face recognition
    • Thalamus: relay center for all senses except smell
    • Pituitary Gland: endocrine regulation via hypothalamus; hormone release
  • BRAIN RESEARCH METHODS:
    • EEG: measures broad electrical activity; not highly specific
    • fMRI: shows activity in specific regions by measuring blood oxygen
    • Lesions: destruction of brain tissue to study function
  • DISEASES & DISORDERS TO KNOW:
    • Multiple sclerosis: demyelination disrupts APs -> mobility issues
    • Myasthenia gravis: acetylcholine blockade -> motor weakness
    • Blindsight: lesions to primary visual cortex; perception via association areas
    • Prosopagnosia: face blindness (occipital/temporal damage)
    • Broca’s aphasia: nonfluent speech (Broca’s area)
    • Wernicke’s aphasia: poor comprehension (Wernicke’s area)
    • Phantom limb pain: brain plasticity; mistaken signals from absent limb
    • Epilepsy: seizures from imbalanced neurotransmitter activity
    • Alzheimer's: acetylcholine loss in hippocampus
  • SLEEP AND CONSCIOUSNESS:
    • Consciousness: awareness of cognitive processes
    • Circadian Rhythms: ~24-hour cycle; disruption causes jet lag/shift work issues
    • Brain waves: Beta (awake), Alpha (relaxed), Theta/Delta (NREM sleep depth), REM (dreaming and cognitive processing)
    • REM cycles: occur several times per night; REM length increases later in night; Deep sleep decreases
    • Sleep disorders: insomnia, sleep walking (somnambulism) in NREM stage 3, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, REM behavior disorder
    • REM Rebound: increased REM after disruption
  • DREAM THEORIES:
    • Activation-Synthesis: random neural activation; dreams assign meaning post hoc
    • Consolidation Theory: dreams help memory consolidation
  • WHY SLEEP IS NECESSARY:
    • Consolidation of memories
    • Restoration of immune function and energy

Perception, Sensation, and Cognition

  • SENSATION: receiving stimulus energy from the environment

  • TRANSDUCTION: converting sensory input into neural signals (APs)

  • PERCEPTION: brain interpretation of sensory input

  • Thresholds & Scaling:

    • Absolute Threshold: detection of a stimulus 50% of the time
    • Just Noticeable Difference (JND): smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected
    • Weber's Law: two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as different

  • SYNESTHESIA: blending of senses (e.g., perceiving colors as sounds)

  • SENSORY ADAPTATION: reduced sensitivity due to constant stimulation

  • VISUAL SYSTEM:

    • Lens: focuses light on retina
    • Retina: contains rods/cones; photoreceptors
    • Fovea: area of best vision; high cone density
    • Rods: black/white, peripheral vision; high sensitivity in low light
    • Cones: color vision; daylight; located mainly in fovea
    • Ganglion cells: create the optic nerve; affected by opponent-process theory
    • Blind spot: where optic nerve exits the retina

  • THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:

    • Trichromatic Theory: three cones (blue-short, green-medium, red-long)
    • Opponent-Process Theory: opposing colors processed in ganglion cells; explains afterimages (red/green, blue/yellow)

  • COLOR DEFICIENCY:

    • Common deficits include red/green color blindness; Dichromatism (missing one cone); Monochromatism (only rods)

  • AUDITORY SYSTEM:

    • Properties: Wavelength (pitch), Amplitude (loudness)
    • Theories of Hearing: Place theory (high pitches detected by place of hair cell bending), Frequency theory (pitch determined by frequency of APs), Volley theory (groups of neurons fire in alternating pattern)
    • Sound localization: ear differences help locate sound
    • Deafness types: Conduction (bone/eardrum damage) vs Sensorineural (cochlea/hair cells/nerve damage)

  • OTHER SENSES:

    • Vestibular system: balance (semicircular canals)
    • Kinesthetic sense: body position and movement
    • Pain: Gate-Control Theory – a neural gate modulates pain signals
    • Taste (gustation): six basic tastes (bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami, oleogustus); density of taste receptors affects taste sensitivity; sensory interaction with smell enhances flavor
    • Smell (olfaction): does not route through thalamus; pheromones influence attraction

  • COGNITION PILLAR: PERCEPTION

    • Top-Down Processing: use prior knowledge/patterns to interpret input
    • Bottom-Up Processing: build perception from sensory input
    • Schemas: frameworks for understanding typical situations
    • Perceptual Set: readiness to perceive things in a certain way
    • GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: whole greater than the sum of parts; key principles include:
    • Figure/ground: figures stand out against background
    • Closure: fill in missing parts
    • Proximity: group nearby items
    • Similarity: group by appearance
    • Constancies: perceiving objects as stable despite changes in input
    • Apparent Movement: perceived motion from successive images (e.g., flip books)
    • Selective Attention: focus on one thing and block others; can lead to:
    • Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice unexpected objects when focused elsewhere
    • Change Blindness: failure to notice changes in scene
    • Cocktail Party Effect: noticing one’s own name in a noisy environment

  • DEPTH CUES:

    • BINOCULAR: Retinal disparity (different images on each retina), convergence
    • MONOCULAR: Interposition, Relative Size, Linear Perspective, Relative Clarity, Texture Gradient

  • THINKING & PROBLEM SOLVING:

    • Concepts: mental categories used to group objects/events
    • Prototypes: ideal examples of a concept
    • Algorithms: step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution
    • Heuristics: rules of thumb for quicker problem solving
    • Representative Heuristic: assume something fits a prototype (stereotype)
    • Availability Heuristic: judge likelihood by readily available examples
    • Metacognition: thinking about how you think
    • Mental Set: persist with a single approach; can hinder insight

MEMORY: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

  • ENCODING: getting information into memory
    • Automatic encoding: happens without effort
    • Effortful encoding: requires deliberate processing
    • Levels of Processing (depth of meaning):
    • Structural encoding (shallow) – focus on physical structure
    • Phonemic encoding (intermediate) – focus on sound
    • Semantic encoding (deep) – focus on meaning; best retention
    • Elaborative Rehearsal: strategies to deepen encoding
    • Imagery: attaching images to info
    • Dual encoding: using multiple modalities
    • Chunking: organizing into meaningful units
    • Mnemonics: acronyms (PEMDAS); Method of Loci
    • Context-dependent memory: recall better in the learning context
    • State-dependent memory: recall better in the same physiological state as learning
    • Mood-congruent memory: recall mood-consistent events with mood
    • Forgetting curve: rapid initial forgetting that plateaus over time
    • Distributed practice (spacing effect): review a little each day
    • Massed practice: cramming
    • Testing effect: quizzing enhances retention
  • STORAGE: how memory is retained
    • Multi-Store Model: Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory (STM) → Long-Term Memory (LTM)
    • Sensory Memory:
    • Iconic (visual) memory: ~0.3 s
    • Echoic (auditory) memory: ~2–3 s
    • Short-Term Memory: ~30 s; capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 items; maintenance rehearsal maintains items
    • Long-Term Memory: potentially permanent
    • Explicit (conscious): Episodic (events), Semantic (facts)
    • Implicit (automatic): Classical conditioning, Priming, Procedural (skills)
    • Working Memory Model: splits STM into visual-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop; a central executive integrates and transfers to LTM
  • MEMORY PROCESSES: Retrieval
    • Serial Position Effect: primacy (early items move to LTM) and recency (late items still in STM)
  • OTHER MEMORY NOTES:
    • Prospective memory: remembering to perform future actions
    • Autobiographical memory: personal history; includes episodic and semantic elements
    • Superior autobiographical memory: unusually detailed memory
    • Memory organization: hierarchies, categorical organization, semantic networks
    • Assimilation vs Accommodation: integrating new info into existing schemas or adjusting them
    • Neural substrates: hippocampus (episodic/semantic); cerebellum (procedural/implicit); amygdala (emotional memories); frontal lobes (encoding/retrieval)
    • Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory strengthening through repeated stimulation

Intelligence and Achievement

  • Intelligence theories:
    • Single form (g factor): general intelligence underlies mental abilities
    • Multiple intelligences: many types of intelligence; variability across domains
  • Age concepts:
    • Chronological age vs Mental age
    • IQ scoring: standard advantage → modern uses (educational services, diagnostics)
  • Psychometrics:
    • Standardization: consistent testing procedures and scoring
    • Reliability: consistency over time (e.g., split-half, test-retest)
    • Validity: measures what it intends to measure (construct validity, predictive validity)
    • Normal distribution and standard deviations used for scoring
  • Types of tests:
    • Aptitude tests: predict ability to learn new skills (e.g., ASVAB)
    • Achievement tests: measure current knowledge (e.g., AP exams)
  • Historical issues in IQ testing:
    • Nature vs Nurture: genetics vs environment influences on IQ; twin/adoption studies
    • Bias: cultural, socio-economic biases; poverty affects scores
    • Eugenics concerns; culture-fair testing; non-language skills emphasis
    • Stereotype threat and stereotype lift influence performance
    • Flynn effect: average IQ scores have risen over time; possible reasons include education and health improvements
    • Mindset: fixed vs growth mindset affect effort and achievement

Development and Learning

  • Developmental psychology: three themes
    • Nature vs Nurture (genes vs environment)
    • Continuous vs Discontinuous development
    • Stability vs Change across the lifespan
  • Across study types:
    • CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: different ages at one time; quick but may reflect generational differences
    • LONGITUDINAL STUDY: same individuals over time; detailed but costly and time-consuming
  • PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT:
    • Prenatal development: teratogens can disrupt development (e.g., alcohol, drugs)
    • Maturation: universal, species-typical sequence of development
    • Gross motor vs Fine motor development
    • Reflexes: rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro, stepping, Babinski, etc.
    • Critical/Sensitive periods: certain abilities require exposure during specific windows (language is a classic example)
    • Imprinting in some species (e.g., birds)
  • PUBERTY and ADOLESCENCE:
    • Primary sex characteristics: reproductive organs
    • Menarche, Spermarche
    • Secondary sex characteristics: non-reproductive traits (breasts, voice deepening, body hair)
    • Adolescent growth spurts; frontal lobe development continues into early adulthood
  • Adulthood: decline in various faculties (mobility, flexibility, reaction time, sensory acuity)
  • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Piaget):
    • Schemas; Assimilation; Accommodation
    • Sensorimotor (Birth–2): object permanence develops
    • Pre-operational (2–7): pretend play, egocentrism, lack of conservation, reversibility, theory of mind developing
    • Concrete Operational (7–11): logical thinking about concrete events
    • Formal Operational (11+): abstract and hypothetical thinking
  • VYGOTSKY’S THEORY:
    • Social context essential; Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): gap between what a child can do alone vs with guidance; need scaffolding
    • Crystallized vs Fluid intelligence: crystallized grows with age; fluid declines with age
    • Dementia considerations; linguistic and cognitive changes
  • LANGUAGE: development sequence and components (phonemes, morphemes, grammar, semantics, syntax)
  • SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
    • Temperament: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up
    • Attachment styles: secure, avoidant, anxious, disorganized (Strange Situation)
    • Parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative (authoritative linked to better outcomes)
    • Peer influence across development: imaginary audience, personal fable in adolescence
    • Social clocks and gender roles influence adult life timing and expectations

SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND COGNITION (continued)

  • ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEV.: psychosocial crises across life span
    • Trust vs Mistrust; Autonomy vs Shame; Initiative vs Guilt; Industry vs Inferiority; Identity vs Role Confusion; Intimacy vs Isolation; Generativity vs Stagnation; Integrity vs Despair
  • MARCIA’S IDENTITY THEORY: Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Identity Achievement
  • SOCIAL COGNITIVE: Reciprocal Determinism; Self-efficacy; Self-concept

LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

  • LEARNING THEORIES:
    • Behaviorist perspective focuses on observable behavior; classical and operant conditioning
  • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlov):
    • UCS, UCR, CS, CR; Acquisition; Extinction; Spontaneous Recovery; Generalization; Discrimination; Higher-Order Conditioning; Conditioned Taste Aversion (one-trial learning); Habituation; Emotional Conditioning
  • OPERANT CONDITIONING (Skinner):
    • Voluntary behavior shaped by consequences
    • Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food, water)
    • Secondary Reinforcers: learned (stickers, money)
    • Token Reinforcement: exchange tokens for rewards
    • Positive Reinforcement: add a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior
    • Negative Reinforcement: remove an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior
    • Positive Punishment: add an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior
    • Negative Punishment: remove a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior
    • Shaping: rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior
    • Schedules of Reinforcement:
    • Fixed Ratio (FR): reward after a fixed number of responses
    • Fixed Interval (FI): reward after a fixed amount of time
    • Variable Ratio (VR): reward after a random number of responses
    • Variable Interval (VI): reward after a random amount of time
    • Continuous reinforcement vs Partial reinforcement
    • Learned Helplessness, Instinctive Drift, Superstitious Behaviors
  • SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
    • Observational learning (modeling) – BoBo doll experiments demonstrate imitation
    • Vicarious conditioning – learning via observing consequences of others’ behavior
    • Latent learning – learning is hidden until useful
    • Cognitive maps – mental representation of environments
    • Insight learning – problem-solving sudden realization
  • GROUP AND SOCIETAL LEARNING:
    • Social norms and roles; conformity vs obedience
    • Elaboration Likelihood Model: Central vs Peripheral routes to persuasion
    • Halo effect and rational arguments shaping attitudes
  • STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT (Zimbardo) highlighted ethical concerns about role assignment and power dynamics

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: ATTRACTIONS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR

  • ATtributions: how we explain behavior
    • Dispositional (internal) vs Situational (external)
    • Fundamental Attribution Error: overemphasize personality, underweight situations
    • Actor-Observer bias: blame others’ behavior on disposition; own behavior on situation
    • Self-Serving Bias: successes attributed to self, failures to external factors
    • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: expectations shape outcomes
  • SOCIAL COMPARISON: upward vs downward comparisons; relative deprivation
  • EXPLANATORY STYLE: optimistic vs pessimistic explanations
  • LOCUS OF CONTROL: external vs internal control beliefs
  • MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: repeated exposure increases liking
  • ATTITUDES: stereotypes as generalizations; prejudice (feelings) vs discrimination (actions)
  • IMPLICIT ATTITUDES: unconscious biases; ingroup bias; ethnocentrism; outgroup homogeneity
  • JUST-WORLD PHENOMENON: belief that the world is fair, leading to blaming victims
  • COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: tension from holding conflicting cognitions; mechanisms to reduce dissonance
  • SOCIAL INFLUENCE: conformity and obedience
    • Normative influence: conform to fit in
    • Informational influence: conform because others’ opinions seem correct
    • Obedience: Milgram-like obedience to authority
    • Cultural context:
    • Collectivistic cultures: higher conformity/obedience; group harmony prioritized
    • Individualistic cultures: emphasize individuality
  • GROUP DYNAMICS:
    • Group polarization: opinions become more extreme in group
    • Groupthink: desire for harmony leads to poor decisions
    • Bystander effect: diffusion of responsibility reduces helping behavior
    • Deindividuation: anonymity and group presence reduce self-awareness
    • Social loafing: reduced effort in group tasks
    • Social facilitation: performance on simple tasks improves with presence of others
  • SOCIAL INTERACTION: false consensus, superordinate goals; social traps
  • INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: workplace behavior and burnout
  • ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR:
    • Social reciprocity norm; social responsibility norm; seek social approval
  • ETHICAL CONTEXT: Stanford Prison Experiment raised ethical considerations about research in social settings

PERSONALITY: THEORIES, ASSESSMENT, AND TESTING

  • PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:
    • Personality largely unconscious and shaped by early childhood experiences
    • Id (instincts), Superego (moral compass), Ego (reality mediator)
    • DEFENSE MECHANISMS (protect ego): Repression, Regression, Denial, Rationalization, Displacement, Projection, Reaction Formation, Sublimation
    • PROJECTIVE TESTS: ambiguous stimuli (inkblots, TAT); subjective and debated reliability/validity
  • TRAIT THEORIES:
    • Traits: enduring patterns of behavior; relatively stable and predictive
    • BIG FIVE (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
    • Each trait scales from low to high; broad predictive power
    • Personality inventories use factor analysis to identify components
  • HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE:
    • Emphasizes personal growth and free will
    • Self-Actualization: reaching full potential
    • Unconditional Positive Regard: unconditional acceptance
  • SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE:
    • Behavior influenced by internal cognition and external environment
    • RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: behavior, cognition, and environment interact to shape personality
    • Self-Efficacy: belief in one’s ability to succeed; guides actions
    • Self-Concept: how one views oneself

HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY, STRESS, AND EMOTIONS

  • HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: focuses on physical well-being, illness, and behaviors that influence health

  • STRESS AND COPING:

    • Distress vs Eustress
    • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion
    • Coping strategies:
    • Problem-focused coping: tackle the problem directly
    • Emotion-focused coping: manage emotional response

  • TRENDS IN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY:

    • Tend-and-befriend theory: some cope by self-care and seeking social support (often observed in women)

  • POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND WELL-BEING:

    • Gratitude fosters well-being; exercise strengths/virtues (wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, transcendence)
    • Posttraumatic growth after trauma

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: PERSPECTIVES AND TREATMENT

  • OVERVIEW OF PERSPECTIVES (EXPLANATION & TREATMENT):
    • Biological: genes, neurotransmitters, brain changes; medication/surgical treatments
    • Evolutionary: traits/behaviors that increased survival/reproduction
    • Cognitive: maladaptive thinking patterns; cognitive restructuring
    • Behavioral: maladaptive learned associations and reinforcement/punishment to shape behavior
    • Psychodynamic: unconscious thoughts from childhood; free association, dream analysis
    • Humanistic: lack of self-actualization or unconditional positive regard; client-centered therapy
    • Sociocultural: maladaptive dynamics within culture or society
    • Interactional/ Biopsychosocial: integrate biological, psychological, and social factors
  • DIAGNOSING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR:
    • Dysfunction, distress, and deviation from social norms
    • DSM (APA) and ICD (WHO) provide diagnostic criteria and codes
    • Diagnostic labels have pros (access to treatment) and cons (stigma)
  • NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS:
    • ADHD: inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity; potential prefrontal/reticular activating system involvement; genetic contributions
    • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): deficits in social communication; restricted/repetitive behaviors; genetics and prenatal factors
    • Eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa; weight criteria and distorted body image; biological and sociocultural factors
  • DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS:
    • Major Depressive Disorder: persistent sadness and apathy
    • Persistent Depressive Disorder: milder, long-lasting
    • Mania and Bipolar Disorder: manic episodes with or without depressive episodes
    • Causes: biology (serotonin/NE), cognitive patterns, behavior (learned helplessness), sociocultural factors
  • BIPOLAR DISORDERS:
    • Bipolar I: full manic episodes; depressive episodes
    • Bipolar II: hypomanic episodes with depressive episodes
  • SCHIZOPHRENIA:
    • Not multiple personalities (DID); positive symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking) and negative symptoms (flat affect, avolition)
    • Dopamine hypothesis: excess dopamine activity
    • Possible etiologies: genetics, prenatal infection, neurodevelopmental factors
  • ANXIETY DISORDERS:
    • Phobias (acrophobia, arachnophobia), Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder
    • Causes: conditioning, biology (GABA dysregulation), cognitive processes
  • DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS:
    • Dissociative Amnesia (with/without Fugue): memory gaps related to trauma
    • Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): multiple personalities; usually linked to severe trauma; not schizophrenia
  • OCD AND RELATED:
    • OCD: obsessions + compulsions; Hoarding subtype
    • Causes: genetics, frontal lobe overactivity, learned associations, cognitive patterns
  • TRAUMA AND STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS:
    • PTSD: flashbacks, hypervigilance, insomnia; caused by traumatic events
  • PERSONALITY DISORDERS:
    • Clusters A (odd/eccentric), B (dramatic/erratic), C (anxious/fearful)
    • Examples: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal (A); Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic (B); Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive (C)
  • TREATMENT OF DISORDERS (ETHICS OF THERAPY);
    • Core ethics: Nonmaleficence, Fidelity, Integrity, Respect for rights
    • Pharmacotherapy: antipsychotics, antidepressants (SSRIs/SNRIs), anti-anxiety meds, mood stabilizers (e.g., Lithium)
    • Psychotherapies: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic (person-centered), Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Group therapy, Hypnosis
    • BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL and eclectic approaches emphasize integration of modalities
    • ECT, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS), psychosurgery (historical, limited use)

THERAPY TECHNIQUES AND APPROACHES

  • FREE ASSOCIATION and DREAM INTERPRETATION (Psychoanalytic)
  • PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY: active listening, unconditional positive regard
  • COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY (CBT): integrates cognitive and behavioral strategies
  • SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION: relaxation paired with gradually increasing anxiety triggers
  • AVERSIVE CONDITIONING: pair unwanted behavior with aversive stimulus
  • BIOFEEDBACK: monitor physiological signals to gain control over them
  • TOKEN ECONOMY: reward-based behavior modification
  • DIALECTICAL BEHAVIOR THERAPY (DBT): emotion regulation and interpersonal effectiveness
  • RATIONAL-EMOTIVE THERAPY: challenge unhealthy thoughts
  • GROUP THERAPY: diverse perspectives; less individualized attention
  • HYPNOSIS: used for anxiety and pain control; not a memory-recovery tool

EXAM PREPARATION AND FORMATTING (AP-Style)

  • PART I: Multiple Choice – 75 items, ~90 minutes; break included
  • PART II: Free-response (2 FRQs): article analysis and evidence-based questions
  • Emphasis on understanding core concepts, ability to apply perspectives, and evaluating research methods

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS (quick reference)

  • p-value: p<0.05 indicates statistical significance
  • Effect size: practical significance of results
  • Reliability: consistency of a measure across time or items
  • Validity: whether a test measures what it intends to
  • Broca’s area: speech production (left frontal lobe)
  • Wernicke’s area: language comprehension (left temporal/parietal)
  • Corpus Callosum: connects two hemispheres; split-brain studies show lateralization effects
  • Placebo: inert treatment; used to control for expectancy effects
  • REM rebound: increased REM sleep after deprivation
  • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): 3-phase stress response (Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion)
  • Maslow’s hierarchy (not explicitly listed here, but implied in growth/motivation discussions)
  • Stereotype threat: performance decreases when fearing confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group
  • Flynn effect: IQ scores increasing over generations
  • Operational Definition, Hypothesis, Replication, Blinding, Random Assignment, Random Sample, Control/Experimental Group
  • The Big Five: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
  • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): gap between independent capability and guided capability