Week 1/2. Qualitative & Quantitative Research

What is the nomothetic (Worldview I) approach?

A perspective assuming human behavior is predictable, measurable, generalizable, and driven by external factors (events, personality, other people).

Understanding behavior is best done by isolating variables. Researchers test hypotheses and seek universal laws.

Example?

What methods fit the nomothetic worldview?

Experiments, surveys, quantification, manipulation of variables.

What is the idiographic (Worldview II) approach?

A perspective assuming human behavior is unique, subjective, and context-dependent; researchers aim to understand meanings from participants’ viewpoints.

Research describes and assesses subjectivity and individuality, not universal laws. 

Knowledge is socially constructed through interaction. 

No hypothesis, observing what is happening in the world out there in a real communicative setting. 

What methods fit the idiographic worldview?

Interviews, observations, qualitative descriptions, naturalistic data.

Can researchers fully belong to only one worldview?

No. Most hold mixed views: some behaviours are predictable, others highly individual.

What is the main worldview distinction about generalization?

Worldview I seeks generalizable laws; Worldview II assumes findings are not generalizable.

What is the constructivist worldview?

Assumes individuals construct meanings and seek understanding of the world; focuses on subjective experiences; inductive qualitative research.

What is the transformative worldview?

Research is tied to political action and social justice (confronting social oppression); focuses on marginalized groups.

What is the pragmatic worldview?

Emphasizes “what works,” real-world solutions, and mixed-methods research

Name Craig’s seven traditions of communication theory.

1. Rhetorical

2. Semioti

3. Phenomenological

4. Cybernetic

5. Sociopsychological

6. Sociocultural

7. Critical.

What does the rhetorical tradition emphasize?

The art of discourse and debate; the power of words

What does the semiotic tradition focus on?

Study of signs and symbols, and how meaning is constructed

What does the phenomenological tradition study?

The experience of others, focusing on meanings as experienced phenomena

What does the cybernetic tradition view communication as?

Communication as a system of information processing and feedback.

What does the sociopsychological tradition emphasize?

The interaction of individuals, focusing on attitudes, perceptions, and influence.

What does the sociocultural tradition examine?

Production and reproduction of social order; examines shared meanings, conflict, alienation.

What does the critical tradition analyze?

Challenging assumptions, with focus on power, oppression, and emancipation.

What is ontology?

Foundational beliefs about what exists and what communication is.

What kind of questions does ontology address?

• Do humans make real choices?

• Is experience individual or social?

• Is communication universal or contextual?

Why is “attitude” an ontological problem?

Because you cannot see attitudes directly—only infer them from behaviour or surveys.

What are the five components in Shannon & Weaver’s model?

1. Source:  the provider or initiator of content

2. Message: the content of communication

3. Channel: vehicle for communication content e.g. social media

4. Receiver: the recipient(s)/consumer(s) of information

5. Noise: extraneous information or distractions that can disrupt an interaction

What did Lasswell (1948) add to communication theory?

The “effects” dimension: Who → Says what → Through which channel → To whom → With what effect?

What do critical theorists focus on in communication?

Power structures and “who benefits.”

What do ethnographic and phenomenological researchers focus on?

To understand communication from the perspective of the individuals they are studying rather than from a dispassionate distance. 

What defines an academic discipline?

Shared topics, boundaries, methods, and standards of “good research.”

What does Livingstone (2011) argue?

Communication research is vital globally. Researchers should embrace a widening of scope, allow research boundaries to become porous, and capitalize on collaboration. 

What does Craig (2015) propose?

Calls for a pluralistic field of communication theories with dialogue among multiple traditions and an emphasis on practical communication problems. 

What do Craig & Xiong (2022) argue?

Previously defined traditions should be de-westernized, global cultures recognized and non-western traditions integrated. 

Communication theory should be de-westernized and incorporate global perspectives.

What does Waisbord (2019) argue about communication studies?

The field is fragmented but this pluralism is valuable and should be embraced.

What is “polymedia”?

The complex environment where multiple communication channels shape social relationships (Madianou & Miller, 2013).

What is “masspersonal communication”?

Communication that blends interpersonal and mass communication, driven by user choice (O’Sullivan & Carr, 2018).

According to Guzman and Lewis (2020), what are the 3 aspects of AI that need to be more fully understood?

1. Functional aspect: core elements of the communication process (Chapter 2) and how AI impacts these components.

2. Relational aspect: the question of how people understand AI and their relationship to it. 

3. Metaphysical aspect:issues such as what defines human intelligence, as opposed to machine intelligence, and the boundaries between them. Should the assistant be regarded as nothing more than a smart search engine or an autonomous research colleague? 

What is a worldview in research?

A researcher’s underlying belief about what research is for and how knowledge should be generated.

Why is it important to be aware of your worldview?

It helps you refine research questions and choose appropriate methods.

How does the nomothetic worldview study behavior?

By isolating variables and identifying causal relationships.

How does the idiographic worldview study behavior?

From the participant’s perspective, considering the whole situation.

What characterizes a study from a nomothetic worldview?

• Hypothesis-driven

• Systematic manipulation

• Clear causal relations

• Generalizable results

What characterizes a study from an idiographic worldview?

• Data-driven

• Natural setting

• Rich, diverse observations

• Focus on meaning and context

What are quantitative research methods based on?

The idea that human traits and behaviors can be measured and analyzed numerically.

What are qualitative research methods based on?

The idea that human behavior is best understood through observation and interpretation.

Give examples of typically qualitative methods.

• Interviews

• Focus groups

• Case studies

• Observations

• Diary studies

Give examples of typically quantitative methods.

• Experiments

• Surveys

• Content analysis

• Meta-analysis

Why is research not simply quantitative or qualitative?

Because many studies combine approaches and perspectives.

What is triangulation?

Combining multiple research methods to offset the weaknesses of individual methods.

What is a current trend in research approaches?

More attention to individual and cultural differences.

What does WEIRD stand for?

1. Western

2. Educated

3. Industrialized

4. Rich

5. Democratic.

Why is WEIRD bias a problem?

Findings based on WEIRD populations may not generalize to the rest of the world.

What is inductive reasoning?

Reasoning from specific observations to general theories.

What is induction typically used for?

Theory building and hypothesis generation.

What is deductive reasoning?

Reasoning from general theory to specific hypotheses or observations.

What is deduction typically used for?

Theory and hypothesis testing.

What is the typical deductive research cycle?

Theory → Hypotheses → Observation → Analysis → Interpretation.

Why do researchers never start from a “blank slate”?

They bring prior knowledge, experiences, and assumptions.

What are smart starting points for research?

• Real-world examples

• Personal experiences

• Stakeholder mapping

• Existing literature

Why is reading existing literature important?

To build on prior knowledge and follow field conventions.

What research purposes can a study have?

• Exploration

• Description

• Explanation

• Prediction

• Control

• Interpretation

• Criticism

What dimensions can research vary on?

• Wide vs narrow scope

• Objective vs subjective

• Large vs small samples

• Quantitative vs qualitative