Year 10 Psychology

psychology

scientific study of thoughts, feelings, and behavious

psychiatry

medical specialisation that deals with mental health disorders

social work

concerned with helping individuals, families, and communities deal with problems.
fields such as health, disability, child protection, justice, counselling, etc.

psychologist

focus: behaviour, interaction, emotions
- study pathway of 6 yrs
- research, counselling, or assessment

psychiatrist

focus: medical diagnosis and treatment
- much lengthier study pathway (>10 yrs)
- can prescribe medications, often consultants for mental health teams

- much higher pay
- more complex/severe cases

social worker

focus: assistance and services
- study pathway of 4 yrs
- support for cultural, social, and psychological issues of diverse peoples

nature vs. nurture debate

whether specific behavioural traits are inherited or aquired

nature

traits are result of prewiring, genetic inheritance, biological factors

nurture

traits are result of influence of learning, experiences, exposure (external factors' influence)

consequences of nature vs nurture in intelligence

- nature: supports separation for education based on potential only
- nurture: supports equal energy in education for all individuals

consequences of nature vs nurture in behaviour

- nature: intervention is ineffective, drug therapy could work
- nurture: childhood experience is crucial for the behaviour of an individual

approaches to nature vs. nurture in behaviour

- biological approach: all nature
- behaviourism: all nurture
- cognitive psychology: innate mental structures are constantly changed by environment

behavioural genetics

finding out relative contribution of nature and nurture for specific psychological traits

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression
-> genes interact with environment and are activated by experience

myelination

production of myelin sheath that insulate a neuron's axon (fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons)

when does myelination occur?

occurs from birth
2 large bursts - 1 just after birth, 1 during adolescence

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron across which a nerve impulse is passed

synaptogenisis

the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons

When does synaptogenesis occur?

occurs from birth
very rapidly in first 3 years of life, then more as needed

synaptic pruning

a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost

When does synaptic pruning occur?

burst in adolescence (50% cut); stability reached by 30 yrs

order of brain development

hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain (frontal lobe)

frontal lobe development

occurs bottom -> top, back -> front:
- sensory and motor areas are first (e.g. motor cortex: movement)
- areas for more complex functions are last (e.g. prefrontal cortex: reasoning)
-> so more impulsiveness/risk-taking in adolescence

neuroplasticity

the ability of brain synapses to modify and adapt as a result of experience
-> can change brain structure depending on environment during development

deprived environment

absence of things to encourage development and stimulate brain for effective functioning

enriched environment

where there is opportunity for stimulation of the brain by social and physical surroundings

what does the type of environment effect?

brain mass and brain activity
(greater from enriched environment, lesser from deprived)

Rosenzweig: method

rats spent 30-60 days in control, deprived (isolated, empty), or enriched (social, stimuli) environments

Rosenzweig: findings

rats in enriched environment has higher cortex weight and thickness, greater neuronal activity

Rosenzweig: conclusions

enriched environments lead to greater brain plasticity

areas of psychological development

physical, cognitive, social, emotional

physical development

physical growth of systems and brain, changes in body, motor skills, hormones

cognitive development

mental abilities: memory, language, problem solving, perception, decision making

social development

ability and desire to connect others and have close relationships

emotional development

how emotions are experienced, expressed, interpreted, and dealt with

critical and sensitive periods

times during development when environmental factors are more likely to have greater positive or negative impacts on psychological development

start/ending of critical and sensitive periods

sensitive: GRADUAL start and ending
critical: ABRUPT start and ending

during the critical/sensitive period

sensitive: maximal sensitivity to particular stimuli
- best and more efficient time to learn a particular skill
critical: particular stimuli have irreversible effects
- compulsory for development of a particular skill

after the critical/sensitive period

sensitive: skill CAN still be learned (but less efficiently)
critical: canNOT be learned after - cortical areas allocated for the skill will adapt to perform a different function

what type of period are most aspects of human behaviour subject to?

sensitive periods:
so capability can be acquired after period but with more difficulty - e.g. language

only aspect of development evidenced to be subject to a critical period

vision:
if photoreceptors in retina are not adequately stimulated in that time, the optic nerve will never establish a connection to the occipital lobe (part of brain where vision is processed)

attachment

the emotional bond between 2 people
(especially infant-caregiver)

temperament

characteristic way in which a person reacts to people/situations

factors affecting attachment

genetics, temperament, early life experiences

how do genetics affect attachment?

affects degree to which infants respond to parenting environment

how does temperament affect attachment?

- affects caregiver's ability to 'read' infant and respond to needs
- difficulty of temperament may impact affection induced

how do early life experiences affect attachment?

- sensitivity and responsiveness of caregiver affect type and strength of attachment
- demographic factors and culture also contribute

Konrad Lorenz: method

raised geese with human 'mothers' - first thing present at hatching, only contact in early days

Konrad Lorenz: findings

- 'imprinting': bond caused by bird in first 13-15 hours of life when they see first moving object at birth - voice (geese sound imitation) and visual (patterned gum boots) recognition
- species does not matter: initial imprinting preferred (when introduced to other geese), adopts behaviour of 'mother' (e.g. dominance)

Konrad Lorenz: conclusion (what findings suggest)

attachment is innate and programmed genetically (nature)

Harry Harlow: method

infant monkeys in either control environment, with cloth and/or wire mother, or isolated - observed preference for mother or food

Harry Harlow: findings

- 'tactile comfort': biological need to touch/cling for emotional comfort (cloth mother preferred over wire, when distressed clinging to cloth mother was natural response - crucial in critical period)
- cloth mother monkeys had greatest social skill and development; isolated monkeys were highly disturbed

Harry Harlow: conclusion (what findings suggest)

nursing and primary caregiver isn't just for food; early comfort is crucial for development

John Bowlby: method

studied 44 juvenile thieves, compared with control of 44 non-thief teenagers

John Bowlby: findings

over 50% of juvenile thieves were separated from mothers for >6 months in first 5 years of life

John Bowlby: conclusions

Attachment Theory:
- individuals are biologically programmed for attachment for survival
- critical period for attachment is 2 years
- 'primary attachment figure' for a child (usually mother) is secure base
- 'maternal deprivation' (disruption of attachment) leads to long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties
- relationship w primary attachment figure becomes prototype for all future relationships
(model of 3 styles was adopted by Ainsworth)

Mary Ainsworth: method

Strange Situation:
- test infant reactions to reunion episodes with mother
(episodes with mother, stranger, both, and neither)
- 4 behaviours were observed: seeking of contact, contact maintaining, avoidance of contact, resistance to contact

Mary Ainsworth: findings

types of attachment:
- secure
- insecure-ambivalent
- insecure-avoidant

secure attachment

- confident needs will be met
- exploration with mother as 'safe base'
- return to mother in distressing times
- easily soothed by mother

ambivalent attachment

- clingy and dependant
- reluctant to leave mother to explore
- reject mother when she engages
- cannot be soothed by mother

avoidant attachment

- doesn't pay attention to mother
- independent physically and emotionally
- does not seek contact with mother when distressed
- can be soothed by anyone

Mary Ainsworth: conclusions

Caregiver Sensitivity Hypothesis:
attachment style is based off behaviour of mother
- sensitive: responsive to needs and responds correctly (secure)
- insensitive: unavailable and rejecting (avoidant) OR inconsistent with responses (ambivalent)

Trauma

powerful shock experienced during childhood
(e.g. divorce, death of parent, abuse, war)

Effects of childhood trauma

PTSD (long lasting effects that impact development):
impulsivity, agitation, hyper-vigilance, avoidance, numbness

Deprivation

state of neglect without basic needs throughout childhood
(e.g. institutionalisation, poverty, parents with alcoholism or mental illness)

Effects of childhood deprivation

cognitive impairment
attachment disorder

Rutter: method

measured evidence of cognitive impairment in:
- children from Romanian institutions now adopted by UK families
- non-deprived UK children adopted by UK families (control)
at entry to family and after 6 years

Rutter: findings

- Romanian children adopted

Rutter: conclusions

- deprivation has less long-term consequences if children have opportunity to form secure attachment
- consequences are severe if they don't

what did Piaget establish about cognitive development?

4 stages of cognitive development
- set stages, all individuals go through them, set time periods for each
- development is less dependent on social/cultural context

Piaget: "schema"

a mental framework in which information we learn is organised (what something is and how to respond to it)

how can schemas be altered?

assimilation
accomodation

assimilation

interpreting new information in terms of our existing schemas (fit into an already established category)

accomodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information (making a new category when new information doesn't fit into current ones)

Piaget: 4 stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor stage
2. pre-operational stage
3. concrete operational stage
4. formal operational stage

sensorimotor stage

0-2 years:
learn via sensing and moving in environment
- object permeance

pre-operational stage

2-7 years:
use symbols, images, and language to represent world
- egocentrism, animism, irreversibility

concrete operational stage

7-11 years:
basic mental problems (physical), but not thinking well with abstract ideas
- reversibility, concentration, multitasking

formal operational stage

12+ years:
logical and methodical thinking about physical and abstract problems
- forming and testing hypotheses, flexible thinking

what did Vygotsky establish about cognitive development?

social learning theory
- development is more fluid, depends heavily on socio-cultural context
- is a result of learning experiences from others

Vygotsky: ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development
- area between what an individual can do independently and what the cannot do (no matter how much support they are given)
- where they can complete a task with guidance that they would not be able to do on their own

Vygotsky: 'more knowledgeable other'

the person with more experience/understanding that provides guidance in ZPD
(therefore we much from those who know more; learning relies on social interaction)

Vygotsky: 'scaffolding'

the temporary support for student to master new skill independently
- less needed as the student improves

what is the information processing theory (IPT) for?

to identify specific processes that account for cognitive development
- based off process of encoding information from short to longterm memory

IPT: 'processing speed'

time it takes to perform a cognitive task
(key variable)

IPT: 'cognitive strategies'

mental processes an individual uses to solve problems (e.g. rote learning, colours)

IPT: 'metacognition'

becoming aware of processes of learning/knowing (thinking about thinking)
- understanding which cognitive strategies lead to optimal encoding for an individual

TERM 4

woohoo

Locke, 1981: method

(whether goal setting increases performance)
lab and observational investigations on goal setting and performance

Locke, 1981: findings

~90% of investigations show goal setting improved performance
- the more specific and challenging the goal, the greater the performance

Locke, 1981: conclusions

- goal setting is important to achieve results
- goals should be as specific as possible to enhance performance

4 Cs and 1 F

clear, challenging, commitment, complexity, feedback

why should a goal be clear?

easy to know how to work towards achieving and determine success

why should a goal be challenging?

harder goals produce more motivation
(but not too challenging or person would give up)

why should a goal involve feedback?

provides opportunity to assess goals at target points and make adjustments to improve likelihood of success

how complex should a goal be?

simple in scope is more likely to improve motivation as it is clearer where to direct energy

components of emotion (4)

physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, behavioural expression

physiological arousal

uncontrollable body changes - state of heightened activity in a part of the body to prepare for action
(e.g. increasing blood pressure, sweating, crying)

subjective feelings

internal feelings associated with emotion
(e.g. nervous, excited)