Unit 4 ( Social Psychology)

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person's stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others' behavior)

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

ingroup

"us": people with whom we share a common identity

outgroup

"them" those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias

Attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

persuasion

changing people's attitudes, potentially influencing their actions

peripheral route

persuasion occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people's thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

norms

a society's understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Prescribe "proper" behavior in individual and social situations.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

obedience

complying with an order or a command

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms

loose culture

a place with flexible and informal norms

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal creates anger, which can generate aggression

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)

a strategy designed to decrease international tensions