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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species
hypothesis
a testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables in a scientific experiment. It provides a basis for further investigation and experimentation.
control
the standard or baseline condition that remains unchanged throughout the experiment. It allows for comparison to determine the effect of the independent variable.
characteristics of living organisms
growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, metabolism, homeostasis, and cellular organization.
correct order of complexity
atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
theory
a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of evidence and tested hypotheses.
The smallest unit of biological structure which meets the functional requirements of
“living
a cell.
Types of logical thinking
include inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
atom
are the basic building blocks of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Isotopes
are variants of a chemical element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses.
Octet rule
states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a full outer shell of eight electrons, leading to greater stability.
Ions
are charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons, resulting in a positive or negative charge.
ionic bond
a chemical bond formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
covalent bond
a chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
Polar covalent bond
a type of covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally between atoms, resulting in a molecule with partial positive and negative charges.
hydrogen bonds
weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, typically oxygen or nitrogen.
solute
medium that dissolves in a solvent
solvent
medium that gets dissolved in a solute
solution
Mixture of a solute and solvent that results in a homogeneous mixture.
What happens, at the molecular level when sodium chloride is dissolved in water
The ionic compound dissociates into its constituent ions, Na⁺ and Cl⁻, which become surrounded by water molecules, allowing the ions to disperse uniformly throughout the solution.
Hydrophobic
Refers to molecules that repel water and do not dissolve in it due to their nonpolar nature.
hydrophilic
Refers to molecules that attract water and can dissolve in it due to their polar nature.
What is an acid
A substance that donates protons (H⁺) in a solution, typically resulting in a decrease in pH.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars that are the building blocks of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar units like glucose and fructose.
Disaccharides
Carbohydrates formed by the combination of two monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharides.
starch
A polysaccharide that serves as a storage form of energy in plants, made of long chains of glucose units.
glycogen
A polysaccharide that serves as energy storage in animals
cellulose
A polysaccharide that provides structural support in plants.
chitin
A polysaccharide that provides structural support in the cell walls of fungi and exoskeletons of arthropods.
Triglycerides
type of fat (lipid) composed of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule, serving as a major energy storage form in the body.
Saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid with no double bonds, fully saturated with hydrogen atoms.
unsaturated fatty acids
A fatty acid that contains one or more double bonds.
Phospholipids
Molecules made of two fatty acids and a phosphate group, forming cell membranes.
Steroids
Lipids with a core structure of four fused carbon rings, often acting as hormones.
waxes
Long-chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain alcohols, providing waterproofing and protection.
Amino acids
Building blocks of proteins.
Amino acids basic structure
Composed of an amino group, carboxyl group, and R group (side chain).
enzymes
Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.
hormones
Chemical messengers that regulate various functions in the body.
structural proteins
Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues.
The four levels of protein structure
Primary Structure: The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Secondary Structure: Local folding of the polypeptide into structures like alpha helices or beta sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary Structure: The overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide, formed by interactions between R-groups.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement and interaction of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein complex.
components of a nucleotide
Phosphate Group: A phosphate molecule that links nucleotides together.
Sugar: A five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA).
Nitrogenous Base: A base (adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, or guanine) that pairs with complementary bases in DNA or RNA.
Molecule
Grouping of the same element
compound
grouping of different elements
base
any substance that accepts hydrogen ions
peptide bond
A covalent bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, linking amino acids in a protein chain
