Cognitive Psychology: Mental Imagery, Spatial & Semantic Memory, Language Processing

Mental Imagery

Mental representation of stimuli when those stimuli are not physically present.

Visual Imagery

Representation of visual stimuli in the absence of physical input.

Auditory Imagery

Mental representation of sounds (e.g., imagining a song).

Analog Code

Imagery stored in a form resembling actual perception.

Propositional Code

Imagery stored as language-like descriptions.

Imagery Debate

Argument over whether mental images are picture-like (analog) or language-like (propositional).

Shepard & Metzler (1971)

Mental-rotation study showing time to rotate images increases with angular difference.

Kosslyn et al. (2001)

Found that mental imagery activates visual-processing brain areas—support for analog code.

Reed (1974, 2010)

Showed people often fail to reinterpret images—evidence for propositional coding.

Cognitive Map

Mental representation of geographic space.

Distance Heuristic

We tend to overestimate distance between categories and underestimate within categories.

Landmark Effect

Important locations seem closer than they are.

90-Degree-Angle Heuristic

People assume streets or borders meet at right angles.

Rotation Heuristic

People remember figures as more 'upright' or regular than they are.

Alignment Heuristic

People mentally align separate geographic structures.

Spatial Framework Model

Vertical > Front-back > Left-right dimensions in cognitive maps.

Situated Cognition Approach

Spatial representations depend on context and embodied experience.

Semantic Memory

Organized knowledge about the world, concepts, and language.

Concept

Mental representation of a category.

Category

Set of objects that belong together.

Prototype Approach

Category decisions made by comparing to an ideal 'best' example.

Graded Structure

Some items are more prototypical than others.

Exemplar Approach

Concepts represented by specific stored examples.

Prototype vs Exemplar

Prototype = average; Exemplar = actual instances.

Network Model

Semantic memory is organized as interconnected nodes.

Schema

Generalized knowledge about situations or events.

Script

Type of schema for a specific sequence of actions (e.g., restaurant).

Boundary Extension

Remembering a scene as including more than was actually present.

Memory Abstraction

Storing the meaning but not exact wording.

Memory Integration

Combining related information into a unified memory.

Constructive Approach

Memory is actively built, not reproduced.

Pragmatic Approach

People remember what fits their goals or intentions.

Schemas

Can bias recall toward social stereotypes.

Psycholinguistics

Study of the cognitive processes involved in language comprehension and production.

Phoneme

Smallest unit of sound in language.

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning (e.g., un-, -ed).

Syntax

Rules governing word order in sentences.

Grammar

System combining morphology and syntax.

Semantics

Study of meaning in language.

Pragmatics

Social rules guiding language use.

Surface Structure

The literal wording of a sentence.

Deep Structure

The underlying meaning of a sentence.

Transformational Rules (Chomsky)

Convert deep structure to surface structure.

Passive vs Active Voice

Passive sentences are harder to process.

Negation

Sentences with 'not' require extra processing time.

Lexical Ambiguity

Words with multiple meanings (e.g., bank).

Syntactic Ambiguity

Sentences with multiple grammatical interpretations.

Good-Enough Processing

Readers often form partial interpretations instead of full analysis.

Discourse Comprehension

Understanding connections between sentences and building a coherent mental model.

Constructionist View of Inferences

Readers actively draw inferences to link text ideas.

Metacomprehension

Awareness of one's own understanding while reading.

Direct-Access Route (Reading)

Recognize words directly from visual input.

Indirect-Access Route (Reading)

Convert visual words into sound before meaning.

Dual-Route Approach

Reading uses both direct and indirect routes.

Whole-Word vs Phonics Approach

Teaching reading by recognizing entire words vs. decoding sounds.

Creativity

Producing ideas or products that are both novel and useful.

Divergent Production (Guilford, 1967)

Ability to generate many different solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Finding the single best answer to a problem.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing a task for its own enjoyment; increases creativity.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing a task for rewards or approval; may reduce creativity.

Ordinary vs Exceptional Creativity

Debate over whether creativity is everyday thinking or unique talent.

Insight vs Non-Insight Problems

Insight problems require sudden reorganization of thinking.

Right Hemisphere Role

Often linked with novel associations and divergent thinking.

Conscious Attention in Creativity

Balancing focused effort with flexible thinking enhances creative output.

Altered States and Creativity

Daydreaming, relaxation, and mind-wandering can foster creative insight.

Perseverance and Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability and persistence are key motivators in creative work.