Studied by 3 people
nature vs. nurture
evaluating the relative contributions of biology & lived experience; debated since the Greeks; Descartes believed some ideas were innate
charles darwin
wrote “On the Origin of Species”; created idea of natural selection & evolution
natural selection
chance variations lead to an organism’s survival, and the well-equipped species survive while the others die out
evolution
change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations
hindsight bias
tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were
overconfidence
bias in which a person’s subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments, especially when confidence is relatively high
empirical approach
idea that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence; letting facts speak for themselves
critical thinking
examination of assumptions, discerning of hidden values, evaluation of evidence, and assessment of conclusions in order to form a judgement
scientific method
a specific process consisting of creating hypotheses and testing them through careful observation/experimentation paired with rigorous analysis; used since cognitive assumptions can distort interpretation of observations
scientific theory
explanation of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested and corroborated in accordance with the scientific method, following a set of rules for observation, measurement, and evaluation
hypothesis
proposed & testable explanation for a phenomenon, backed by good theory
operational definition
statement of procedures used to define variables
replication
repeating the essence of a study
case study
one person studied extensively in order to create generalisations; suggests directions for future study and can produce fruitful ideas
survey
technique for ascertaining the behaviours and beliefs of a group, likely through questioning of a representative sample
wording effect
effect where small changes in wording can alter results
random sampling
creation of a representative sample to gather the aggregate attitude by selecting members of a population at random; helps create generalisations
population
whole group of interest
naturalistic observation
recording behaviour in natural environments in order to describe it; can be revealing & challenge preconceived notions; little to no factors controlled
correlation
measure of the extent to which two factors vary together & how they may predict each other; only indicates the possibility of cause-effect relationship
correlation coefficient
statistical index, denoted r, of the relationship between two variables
scatterplot
plot of two variables; slope indicates direction of correlation; scatter indicates strength of correlation
confounding variable
variable that influences both the dependent and independent variable; is reason why correlation does not necessarily equal causation
illusionary correlation
perceived but nonexistent conflation of coincidences as correlations; effectively deceiving ourselves
random assignment
use of randomness to assign participants to groups in order to equalise other factors, like age and attitude, besides the independent variable
double-blind experimentation
neither participants nor data collectors know what treatment is given to a group
experimental group
group receiving the treatment
control group
group receiving a placebo
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone
independent variable
variable that is changed in an experiment with the hopes of inducing a measurable effect on the dependent variable
dependent variable
variable that depends on what happens in an experiment; what is being measured
measures of central tendency
ways of measuring the centre of a data set
mean: average of a data set (heavily influenced by outliers)
median: middle of a data set (weakly influenced by outliers)
mode: most common in a data set
measures of variability
numerical values for the spread of a data set
range: gap between highest and lowest values
standard deviation: how much scores deviate from one another (represented with Greek letter σ)
normal distribution
typical distribution that data tends towards; shaped like a bell curve
statistical significance
obtained when observed difference is not due to chance variations
histogram
shows shape of continuous data; allows interpretation of data for statistical measures; shows the frequency between two things
descriptive research
used to describe behaviour and characteristics of a population; usually done with either naturalistic observation, case studies, or a survey
longitudinal study
study drawn out over a long period of time to study changes in one person
cross-sectional study
observation and classification of the changes in different types of people and groups at the same time
observer bias
researcher alters or changes the results of a study, likely due to preconceived notions about what the results “should” be
hawthorne effect
participants of a study acting differently due to knowing that they are part of a study
cohort effect
entire group eliminated from an experiment
selection bias
randomness not fully achieved in the selection of participants in a study
sample bias
sample not representative of topic being studied
correlational research
examination of how two variables are related in order to possibly make predictions; cannot determine causation
third variable problem
when two variables appear to be related to each other, but are actually linked via a third variable
p-value
statistic of an observed sample that is used to test a statistical hypothesis; p < 0.05 is typical cutoff for determining if event was due to a “chance” variation or not
institutional review board
prior to a study, procedures must be reviewed by this board to show that it is ethical and follows all criteria
reliability
degree to which an experiment can be reproduced
validity
experiment testing what it is supposed to test; proves accuracy
perspectives
different approaches to explain why people think and act the way they do
evolutionary perspective
take basic principles of evolution - includes natural selection; processes exist as they serve an evolutionary purpose
psychodynamic perspective
behaviour determined by past experiences; shapes unconscious
behavioral perspective
focus on observable behaviours & learned behaviours; controlled by their environment
cognitive perspective
focus on memory and intelligence and other internal processes of the mind and how they influence behaviour
humanistic perspective
emphasises choice & growth - positive outlook on future; related to their own motivation to fulfill potential
sociocultural perspective
eclectic perspective that focuses on both society and culture in terms of behaviour; culture and beliefs shape identity
biological perspective
influence of genetics & brain chemistry on thinking
biopsychosocial perspective
combination of the biological, psychological, and sociocultural perspectives
lesion
selective destruction of tissue
CT scan
x-ray photos that can reveal brain damage
PET scan
depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's glucose use; uses a radiotracer glucose molecule that enters the brain to map activity
MRI
head placed in magnetic field, then atoms disrupted provide a picture
fMRI
reveals functioning and structure through mapping bloodflow in brain areas
electroencephalogram (EEG)
amplified readout of brainwaves
brainstem
the crossover point of the nervous system; spinal cord swells into skull; most primitive part of brain; handles mostly non-voluntary functions
medulla oblongata
top of the spinal cord; swells into the brain; controls essential life functions like heartrate and breathing
pons
bridge between cerebral hemispheres & medulla/cerebellum; controls sleep cycles and coordinates movements
reticular formation
covers brainstem in neurons and carries messages throughout brainstem; handles incoming stimuli and relays the information elsewhere; acts as a filter
thalamus
top of brainstem; receives information from all senses besides smell; routes it and sends responses to cerebellum
cerebellum
the “little brain”; processes sencory input; coordinates fluid movement, balance, and posture
limbic system
border between the brain’s older parts & cerebral hemispehere; aids with emotions, hunger, and the formation of memories
amygdala
influences aggression & fear; handles fight or flight
hypothalamus
located below thalamus; governs bodily maintenance; hormones activated trigger the pituitary gland; monitors blood chemistry
hippocampus
plays role in memory storage & formation; connects emotions to memories
cerebral cortex
thin surface layer of neural cells - info processing centre; “grey matter”; handles consciousness and thought; has folds for increased surface area
glial cells
act as “glue”; worker cells provide for neurons; provides nutrients insulating myelin, guides connection.
frontal lobe
handles speaking, movement, and judgement; contains motor and sensory cortex; located at the front/top part of the brain
prefrontal cortex
part of frontal lobe; handles complex cognitive behaviours, personality, social behaviour, and decision making
motor cortex
movement portion of frontal lobe; at rear of frontal lobe and controls voluntary movement
sensory cortex
part of the frontal lobe; receives incoming information for processing
parietal lobe
handles sensory input from touch and body; located at top/rear of the brain
somatosensory cortex
part of parietal lobe; responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from entire body
occipital lobe
processes information from eyes; located at back of brain
visual association cortex
part of occipital lobe; handles recognition of lines, angles, shapes, and movements
temporal lobe
processes auditory information; located above the ears
association area
part of brain not involved in primary motor/sensory functions; difficult to map; can link memories with sensory input
aphasia
impairment of language
broca’s area
association area in the left frontal lobe that directs muscle movement for speech
wernicke’s area
association area in the left temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension and expression
angular gyrus
part of brain involved in reading aloud
neuroplasticity
brain’s ability to modify structure of itself, especially during childhood, by recognising damage
neurogenesis
formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
wide band of axons connecting the two hemispheres in the brain; can be split to alleviate seizures
phrenology
popular but ill-fated research that supposedly could identify mental abilities based on skull bumps
neuron
nerve cell; building block of nervous system
sensory neuron
handles incoming information; carries information from sensory receptors to the brain
motor neuron
handles outgoing information; carries information from brain to muscles
interneurons
carries internal information between motor and sensory neurons
dendrite
bushy bit of a neuron that receives messages and controls impulses
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