AP Psychology: Semester 1 Final Review

nature vs. nurture

evaluating the relative contributions of biology & lived experience; debated since the Greeks; Descartes believed some ideas were innate

charles darwin

wrote “On the Origin of Species”; created idea of natural selection & evolution

natural selection

chance variations lead to an organism’s survival, and the well-equipped species survive while the others die out

evolution

change in heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations

hindsight bias

tendency for people to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they were

overconfidence

bias in which a person’s subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments, especially when confidence is relatively high

empirical approach

idea that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence; letting facts speak for themselves

critical thinking

examination of assumptions, discerning of hidden values, evaluation of evidence, and assessment of conclusions in order to form a judgement

scientific method

a specific process consisting of creating hypotheses and testing them through careful observation/experimentation paired with rigorous analysis; used since cognitive assumptions can distort interpretation of observations

scientific theory

explanation of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested and corroborated in accordance with the scientific method, following a set of rules for observation, measurement, and evaluation

hypothesis

proposed & testable explanation for a phenomenon, backed by good theory

operational definition

statement of procedures used to define variables

replication

repeating the essence of a study

case study

one person studied extensively in order to create generalisations; suggests directions for future study and can produce fruitful ideas

survey

technique for ascertaining the behaviours and beliefs of a group, likely through questioning of a representative sample

wording effect

effect where small changes in wording can alter results

random sampling

creation of a representative sample to gather the aggregate attitude by selecting members of a population at random; helps create generalisations

population

whole group of interest

naturalistic observation

recording behaviour in natural environments in order to describe it; can be revealing & challenge preconceived notions; little to no factors controlled

correlation

measure of the extent to which two factors vary together & how they may predict each other; only indicates the possibility of cause-effect relationship

correlation coefficient

statistical index, denoted r, of the relationship between two variables

scatterplot

plot of two variables; slope indicates direction of correlation; scatter indicates strength of correlation

confounding variable

variable that influences both the dependent and independent variable; is reason why correlation does not necessarily equal causation

illusionary correlation

perceived but nonexistent conflation of coincidences as correlations; effectively deceiving ourselves

random assignment

use of randomness to assign participants to groups in order to equalise other factors, like age and attitude, besides the independent variable

double-blind experimentation

neither participants nor data collectors know what treatment is given to a group

experimental group

group receiving the treatment

control group

group receiving a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

independent variable

variable that is changed in an experiment with the hopes of inducing a measurable effect on the dependent variable

dependent variable

variable that depends on what happens in an experiment; what is being measured

measures of central tendency

ways of measuring the centre of a data set

• mean: average of a data set (heavily influenced by outliers)

• median: middle of a data set (weakly influenced by outliers)

• mode: most common in a data set

measures of variability

numerical values for the spread of a data set

• range: gap between highest and lowest values

• standard deviation: how much scores deviate from one another (represented with Greek letter σ)

normal distribution

typical distribution that data tends towards; shaped like a bell curve

statistical significance

obtained when observed difference is not due to chance variations

histogram

shows shape of continuous data; allows interpretation of data for statistical measures; shows the frequency between two things

descriptive research

used to describe behaviour and characteristics of a population; usually done with either naturalistic observation, case studies, or a survey

longitudinal study

study drawn out over a long period of time to study changes in one person

cross-sectional study

observation and classification of the changes in different types of people and groups at the same time

observer bias

researcher alters or changes the results of a study, likely due to preconceived notions about what the results “should” be

hawthorne effect

participants of a study acting differently due to knowing that they are part of a study

cohort effect

entire group eliminated from an experiment

selection bias

randomness not fully achieved in the selection of participants in a study

sample bias

sample not representative of topic being studied

correlational research

examination of how two variables are related in order to possibly make predictions; cannot determine causation

third variable problem

when two variables appear to be related to each other, but are actually linked via a third variable

p-value

statistic of an observed sample that is used to test a statistical hypothesis; p < 0.05 is typical cutoff for determining if event was due to a “chance” variation or not

institutional review board

prior to a study, procedures must be reviewed by this board to show that it is ethical and follows all criteria

reliability

degree to which an experiment can be reproduced

validity

experiment testing what it is supposed to test; proves accuracy

perspectives

different approaches to explain why people think and act the way they do

evolutionary perspective

take basic principles of evolution - includes natural selection; processes exist as they serve an evolutionary purpose

psychodynamic perspective

behaviour determined by past experiences; shapes unconscious

behavioral perspective

focus on observable behaviours & learned behaviours; controlled by their environment

cognitive perspective

focus on memory and intelligence and other internal processes of the mind and how they influence behaviour

humanistic perspective

emphasises choice & growth - positive outlook on future; related to their own motivation to fulfill potential

sociocultural perspective

eclectic perspective that focuses on both society and culture in terms of behaviour; culture and beliefs shape identity

biological perspective

influence of genetics & brain chemistry on thinking

biopsychosocial perspective

combination of the biological, psychological, and sociocultural perspectives

lesion

selective destruction of tissue

CT scan

x-ray photos that can reveal brain damage

PET scan

depicts brain activity by showing each brain area's glucose use; uses a radiotracer glucose molecule that enters the brain to map activity

MRI

head placed in magnetic field, then atoms disrupted provide a picture

fMRI

reveals functioning and structure through mapping bloodflow in brain areas

electroencephalogram (EEG)

amplified readout of brainwaves

brainstem

the crossover point of the nervous system; spinal cord swells into skull; most primitive part of brain; handles mostly non-voluntary functions

medulla oblongata

top of the spinal cord; swells into the brain; controls essential life functions like heartrate and breathing

pons

bridge between cerebral hemispheres & medulla/cerebellum; controls sleep cycles and coordinates movements

reticular formation

covers brainstem in neurons and carries messages throughout brainstem; handles incoming stimuli and relays the information elsewhere; acts as a filter

thalamus

top of brainstem; receives information from all senses besides smell; routes it and sends responses to cerebellum

cerebellum

the “little brain”; processes sencory input; coordinates fluid movement, balance, and posture

limbic system

border between the brain’s older parts & cerebral hemispehere; aids with emotions, hunger, and the formation of memories

amygdala

influences aggression & fear; handles fight or flight

hypothalamus

located below thalamus; governs bodily maintenance; hormones activated trigger the pituitary gland; monitors blood chemistry

hippocampus

plays role in memory storage & formation; connects emotions to memories

cerebral cortex

thin surface layer of neural cells - info processing centre; “grey matter”; handles consciousness and thought; has folds for increased surface area

glial cells

act as “glue”; worker cells provide for neurons; provides nutrients insulating myelin, guides connection.

frontal lobe

handles speaking, movement, and judgement; contains motor and sensory cortex; located at the front/top part of the brain

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe; handles complex cognitive behaviours, personality, social behaviour, and decision making

motor cortex

movement portion of frontal lobe; at rear of frontal lobe and controls voluntary movement

sensory cortex

part of the frontal lobe; receives incoming information for processing

parietal lobe

handles sensory input from touch and body; located at top/rear of the brain

somatosensory cortex

part of parietal lobe; responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from entire body

occipital lobe

processes information from eyes; located at back of brain

visual association cortex

part of occipital lobe; handles recognition of lines, angles, shapes, and movements

temporal lobe

processes auditory information; located above the ears

association area

part of brain not involved in primary motor/sensory functions; difficult to map; can link memories with sensory input

aphasia

impairment of language

broca’s area

association area in the left frontal lobe that directs muscle movement for speech

wernicke’s area

association area in the left temporal lobe; responsible for language comprehension and expression

angular gyrus

part of brain involved in reading aloud

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to modify structure of itself, especially during childhood, by recognising damage

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

wide band of axons connecting the two hemispheres in the brain; can be split to alleviate seizures

phrenology

popular but ill-fated research that supposedly could identify mental abilities based on skull bumps

neuron

nerve cell; building block of nervous system

sensory neuron

handles incoming information; carries information from sensory receptors to the brain

motor neuron

handles outgoing information; carries information from brain to muscles

interneurons

carries internal information between motor and sensory neurons

dendrite

bushy bit of a neuron that receives messages and controls impulses