motivation, emotion, & personality review

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour toward a goal

primary motivations

biological goals, thirst, hunger, excretion, etc

secondary motivations

social goals, including satisfaction, expression, autonomy, achievement, etc

instinct theory

early theory of human motivation that behaviour is directed by instincts: complex behaviours that are rigidly patterned throughout a species and unlearned

evolutionary theory

replaced instinct theory by focusing on genetically predisposed behaviours that reveal themselves in things like phobias, altruism, and romantic attraction

drive reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

drive

an aroused, motivated state

drive reduction

motivation to behave in such a way as to attain optimal level of arousal

drive states

affective experiences that motivate us to fulfill goals beneficial to our survival & reproductive

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

incentive theory

motivation that originates from incentives that promise some valued outcome or an avoidance of an aversive stimulus

incentives

positive or negative environmental stimuli that motivate behaviour

overjustification effect

when an expected external incentive decreases a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform

optimum arousal

when all of our needs are met, we seek to experience new things and find new info

yerkes-dodson law

theory that too much or too little arousal will impede performance

cognitive dissonance

discomfort experienced when 2 or more conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes are held at the same time. we are strongly motivated to reduce this discomfort

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood & provides the major source of energy for body tissues. when the level is low, we feel hunger

lateral hypothalamus

turns hunger off

ventromedial hypothalamus

turns hunger on

insulin

hormone secreted in the pancreas. it must be present for cells to extract glucose from the blood

ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach

leptin

produced by fat cells throughout the body. provides info to the hypothalamus about the body’s fat levels

orexin

hormone secreted by the hypothalamus itself

vagus nerve

sends signals to the brain when the stomach walls are stretched

set point

the point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure

unit bias

serving size per unit can increase intake

sexual response cycle

stages of sexual responding described by masters & johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution (👅👅)

affiliation

the need to build relationships and feel part of the group

achievement

the need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others, and to meet high standards of excellence

individualism/collectivism

some societies define identity with personal characteristics whereas other societies define identity with membership in groups

atkinson’s achievement motivation theory

the tendency to peruse achievement depends on the strength of the motivation, the estimate of the probability of success & the incentive value of success

thematic apperception test (TAT)

subjects are shown stimuli with ambiguous meaning & are then asked to construct a fictional narrative for the image which can be analyzed to infer the subjects affiliative or achievement motivation

cognitive

element of emotional experience with a subjective conscious experience

physiological

element of emotional experience with awareness of bodily arousal

behavioural

element of emotional experience with a characteristic overt expression

autonomic nervous system

regulates the activity of the glands, smooth muscles, & blood vessels—fight or flight response

galvanic skin response

the change in electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when the sweat glands of the skin increases their activity

james-lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotionally arousing stimuli, the perception of arousal leads to the conscious experience of fear

cannon-bard theory

an emotional-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses & (2) the subjective experience of emotion

schacher’s 2 factor theory

emotion depends on 2 factors 1) autonomic arousal 2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal

evolutionary theory

humans are born with 6-10 emotions that originate in the subcortial brain

facial-feedback theory

suggests that emotions are directly tied to changes in facial features

lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory

asserts that your brain first appraises a situation for its personal relevance, & then evaluated coping strategies available resulting response is an emotion

ledoux’s theory

neuroscientific basis for emotions where some take a “low road” bypassing the cerebral cortex & others take a “high road” through the cortex

cross-cultural theory

through the meaning of gestures may vary, identification of emotions in pictures of faces is remarkably similar showing that facial expression of emotions was common around the world

carol izard

isolated 10 basic emotions (joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, distrust, contempt, dear, shame & guilt)

catharsis

emotional release that in some cultures is believed to relieve aggressive urges

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering & promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals & communities to thrive along 3 pillars — experiences, individual traits, & institutions

adaptation-level phenomenon

factor mediating happiness in which our tendency for judgements are relative to a neutral level defined by prior experiences

relative deprivation

factor mediating happiness in which we judge ourselves relative to those whom we choose to compare, which can be influenced by factors like media, or authorities, etc

stress

the process by which we perceive & respond to certain events, called stressors that we appraise as threatening or challenging

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provided psychology’s contribution to behavioural medicine

stressor

the distressing stimuli

stress response

physiological, behavioural, and emotional reactions to stressors

stress appraisal

the events of our lives flow thru a psychological filter

walter cannon

confirmed that the stress response is part of a unified mind-body system; emotion arousing incidents triggered outpouring of stress hormones from the central core of adrenal glands

hans seyle

general adaptation syndrome (GAS): the concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages; alarm, resistance, adaptation/exhaustion

holmes and rahe stress scale

investigated relationship between life changing events (LCUs) and health

friedman & rosenman’s personality typology

personality based susceptibility factor for stress related illnesses like coronary heart disease. type a’s more prone than type b’s

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system & resulting health

lymphocytes

2 types of WBCs that are part of the body’s immune system & subject to overreacting or underreacting to prolonged stress

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioural methods, can be problem focused or emotion focused

locus of control

the self-perception of the source/solution to stressful situations, can be internal or external

learned helplessness

an acquired sense that environmental control is not possible so no efforts are made

lewin’s motivational conflict models

framework for describing origins of internal conflict based in approach or avoidance relationships to external stimuli

large long term rewards vs small immediate rewards

a form of app/app conflict where a small immediate reward is selected over a large long term reward

vacillation/oscillation

behavioural response in opponent process situations, each outcome choice alternating dominance

displacement activity

unnecessary activity that you when you are trying to delay a doing a more difficult or unpleasant activity

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

traits

dispositions that persist over a range of similar situations are said to have cross situational consistency & stability over time

5 factor model

trait based model for describing personality along different axes, tested with the IPIP-NEO

MMPI

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory

hans & sybil eysenick

used 2 primary personality factors as axes for describing personality variation

psychodynamic theory

explains motivation, personality, & disorders by focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, unconscious motives & conflicts, & coping with sexual and aggressive urges

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes & says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

id

the primitive, instinctual component

pleasure principle

it demands immediate gratification of raw biological urges

ego

the decision making component

reality principle

seems to delay gratification of the id’s urges until the socially/realistically acceptable moment can be found that will bring pleasure & avoid pain

superego

the moral component that incorporates social standards about right and wrong

unconscious

reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, memories & desires that are below the level of consciousness but exert a large effect on behaviour

preconscious

material just beneath the level of consciousness but that can be easily retrieved

consciousness

everything one is aware of at any given moment

defense mechanisms

unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions

repression

keeping distressing thoughts & feelings buried in the unconscious

projection

attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to someone else

displacement

diverting emotional feeelings from their original source to a substitute target

reaction formation

behaving in a way that is exactly opposite of one’s true feelings

regression

a reversion to immature patterns of behaviour

rationalization

creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour

identification

bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group

oral

psychosexual developmental stage where gratification of the id is centered on sucking, biting, & chewing

anal

psychosexual developmental stage where gratification of the id is centered on peeing, pooping, & control

phallic

psychosexual developmental stage where gratification of the id is centered on the genitals & coping with incestuous feelings

latency

psychosexual developmental stage where gratification of the id is centered in resolving dormant sexual interests

genital

psychosexual developmental stage where gratification of the id is centered in the maturation of sexual interests

oedipus complex

a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother & feelings of jealousy & hatred for the rival father

identification

the process by which children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos