UF AMH2020 - Eligible Midterm Key Terms (Spring 2025)

UF AMH2020 (U.S. History Since 1877) with Professor Billups. This is a set consisting of all the terms he presented in the study guide for his midterm exam in Spring 2025. I also included some additional terms that might be useful for the exam.

Reconstruction

A period from 1865 to 1877 after the Civil War in which the U.S. sought to reintegrate Confederate states into the Union, reconfigure southern societies away from slavery, and secure the rights of the formerly enslaved. The two phases of this period are Presidential (1865-1867) and Congressional (1867-1877). It also led to the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which abolished slavery, guaranteed citizenship, and secured voting rights for blacks. Despite its success, it failed to protect the rights of African Americans and ended when federal troops withdrew from the South, which further led to the rise of Jim Crow.

Presidential Reconstruction

A Reconstruction phase from 1865 to 1867 where Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson tried to reintegrate the South back into the North. This phase aimed to restore the Union through lenient policies and the 13th Amendment. However, once Johnson came into power, he granted pardons to former Confederate leaders and faced opposition from Radical Republicans and Congress. His lack of enforcement also caused some southern governments to establish the Black Codes.

Congressional Reconstruction

A Reconstruction phase from 1867 to 1877 where Congress took control of Reconstruction after the North opposed Johnson's policies. Congress used the Reconstruction Acts (1867) to divide the South into 5 districts governed by Union generals. This phase sought to reinforce civil rights and impose stricter state readmission requirements to protect African Americans and punish former Confederates. African Americans were allowed to get government positions and develop schools, churches, and businesses. However, this phase also led to the rise of the Ku Klux Klan.

13th Amendment

An 1865 amendment to the U.S. Constitution that abolished slavery in the U.S. This Reconstruction amendment stated that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude was allowed in the U.S. unless it was a punishment for crime. It also granted Congress the power to enforce it through appropriate legislation. This amendment formally ended legal slavery after the Civil War. It also created the foundation for the 14th and 15th Amendments and caused the South to oppose Reconstruction with the Black Codes.

14th Amendment

An 1868 amendment to the U.S. Constitution that granted citizenship to people born or naturalized in the U.S. as well as the formerly enslaved. This Reconstruction amendment also granted all citizens "equal protection of the laws" and overturned the Dred Scott decision. Although Johnson opposed this amendment, Congress took control of Reconstruction and challenged the Black Codes after the states ratified it. This amendment laid the foundation for future civil rights movements and has been used in numerous Supreme Court cases.

15th Amendment

An 1870 amendment to the U.S. Constitution that sought to protect the voting rights of Black men after the Civil War. This Reconstruction amendment stated that the right to vote shall not be denied by the U.S. based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. This amendment also allowed African Americans to participate in elections in the South even if many states in the South used literacy tests and poll taxes to oppose it. However, it did not apply to women and inspired universal suffrage movements.

New South

A vision of the South that emerged after the Civil War and Reconstruction. This version of the South was characterized by a shift from an agrarian (agricultural) economy based on slavery to a modern economy based on the North's embrace of the Industrial Revolution. Henry Grady also popularized the name of this vision and argued for modernization away from reliance on cotton and agriculture. Although this vision succeeded in promoting industrial growth and a modern economy, its goals were undermined by the Jim Crow laws.

Convict Leasing System

A penal labor system that emerged in the South after the Civil War. Prisoners were leased to private companies, earned no pay, and often faced dangerous work conditions. Since the 13th Amendment abolished slavery unless it was a punishment for crime, thousands of black people were forced into "slavery by another name." This system was significant in the process of rolling back Reconstruction and allowing the South to regain control over their territory. It was eventually abolished due to public outcry and reform efforts.

Readjusters of Virginia (Readjuster Party)

A party that gained power in Virginia over issues related to Reconstruction debt. This party opposed repayment that would reward bondholders while leaving the state empty at the same time. It also advocated for public services, education funds, and inclusivity. Although this party temporarily disrupted racial segregation in the Jim Crow South, white supremacy and the disenfranchisement of black voters undermined their efforts. Regardless, the party highlighted the potential for both alliances between poor whites and African Americans and a more inclusive society. Moreover, this party also had a movement in 1879 that responded to Virginia's debt crisis. It also formed an alliance with the Virginia Republicans in 1881.

Gilded Age

The period from 1867 to 1898 that is marked by rapid economic growth, industrialization, social changes, and railroad expansion. However, these factors, along with an emphasis on prosperity, masked underlying issues like political corruption, economic inequality, and social conflicts. In short, this era was known for corruption, speculation, industrialization, competition, corruption, and labor conflicts. It reshaped the U.S. economy and exposed structural problems that fueled future reform movements.

John D. Rockefeller

An American industrialist who founded Standard Oil, a dominant force in the oil industry during the late 19th century. He was a key figure during the Gilded Age due to his business practices and how he undercut competitors' prices to drive them out of business. His practices caused the Supreme Court to rule that Standard Oil was an illegal monopoly and further prompted concerns about economic power. He also influenced antitrust legislation in the U.S. and the enactment of the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890).

Bessemer Process

A steel production method that was invented by Henry Bessemer in 1856. This process revolutionized steel production during the Industrial Revolution and the Gilded Age by transforming iron into steel and reducing steel production costs. These cost reductions allowed steel to become a desirable resource for railroads, bridges, and skyscrapers. Its impact on industrialization also fueled the rapid growth of economies in Europe and the U.S. during the late 19th century.

Haymarket Riot

An 1886 conflict between police and labor protesters that took place in Chicago, Illinois. This event emerged from a peaceful strike that advocated for 8-hour workdays and highlighted the tensions between labor unions and the government during the Gilded Age. The situation escalated when a bomb killed several officers and civilians, leading to the arrest of several anarchists who were charged for conspiracy. The event caused backlash against labor movements and contributed to the fall of the Knights of Labor.

Homestead Strike

An 1892 violent labor conflict between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers and the Carnegie Steel Company in Pennsylvania. The Steel Workers went on strike against the Carnegie Steel Company's wage cuts. The company responded by firing all workers involved in the strike and hiring armed guards who protected the strikebreakers who took the positions of the original workers. Around 8,500 National Guard troops then came to put down the strike. Its failure demonstrated the power imbalance between workers and industrial capitalists.

Great Railroad Strike (Great Upheaval)

An 1877 strike by railroad workers who protested wage cuts and poor work conditions during the Gilded Age. It was one of the first major strikes in U.S. history, and it reflected the tensions between labor and industrial capitalists as the nation experienced economic expansion. The strike highlighted the growing power of organized labor and the willingness of workers to fight for their rights. It also highlighted the need for labor reforms and set a precedent for future labor movements in the U.S.

Great Migration

The mass movement of over 6 million blacks from the rural Southern U.S. to urban areas in the North and West from 1916 to 1970. This migration was driven by the search for better economic opportunities, the escape from racial segregation, and the promise of improved living conditions in cities like Chicago, New York, and Detroit. It caused demographic changes in northern cities by expanding African American communities that influenced local economies and cultures. It also influenced civil rights movements as well as the Harlem Renaissance.

Jacob Riis

A Danish-American journalist and photographer known for his work in documenting the living conditions of the urban poor in the late 19th century. He mainly worked during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which was a period of rapid industrialization and social inequality. His book, How the Other Half Lives (1890), influenced public opinion and encouraged progressive reforms in urban housing and labor laws. His work also contributed to the Progressive Era since it advocated for social change and highlighted the need for better living conditions for the working class. He also demonstrated the power of journalism and visual storytelling.

Ida B. Wells

An African American civil rights activist who led an anti-lynching crusade in the United States in the 1890s. Her writings during the Jim Crow era exposed the realities of lynching to a broader audience and challenged narratives that justified these acts of violence. She also founded the NAACP and advocated for both racial justice and women's suffrage. Her efforts laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement and inspired future civil rights activists.

Knights of Labor

The largest American labor union of the late 19th century that peaked at around 729,000 members in the 1880s and was led by Terence Powderly. This 1869 organization aimed to unite workers of various skill levels, genders, and races to promote social and economic reforms during the late 19th century labor movement. It sought to improve working conditions by advocating for 8-hour workdays, higher wages, compensation for worker accidents, and an end to child labor. It also did not call for the abolition of private property. It laid the foundation for future labor movements and American unions.

International Workers Association (IWA)

An 1864 organization that united various labor movements and promoted working class interests across Europe and the United States. It emerged during a period of industrialization and labor unrest, as workers sought to address exploitation and improve work conditions. It played a role in advocating for workers' rights and social reforms by being a platform for discussions about socialism, anarchism, and unionism during the 19th century. The organization also highlighted the struggles of workers during rapid social change.

Booker T. Washington

An African American leader who advocated for the vocational education of African Americans as a means to achieve economic independence and social progress. Emerging during the Jim Crow era, he encouraged blacks to focus on practical skills, believed that learning to work would help them achieve social equality, and founded the Tuskegee Institute in 1881. His Atlanta Compromise (1895) proposed that blacks should accept segregation while improving themselves to earn respect. Although his ideas of accommodation were opposed by W. E. B. Du Bois, his work influenced the Civil Rights Movement and had a lasting effect on black education.

W. E. B. Du Bois

An African American activist who wrote Black Reconstruction (1935), co-founded the NAACP, and transformed the way black people were seen in American society. He emerged during the Progressive Era and challenged Booker T. Washington's ideas of gradual economic progress with immediate civil rights and higher education for blacks. Moreover, although he believed that Reconstruction failed since it failed to address certain economic and social inequalities, he used the era as a way to advocate for civil rights, activism, and socialism. His arguments also influenced early civil rights movements.

Sherman Antitrust Act

An 1890 act that outlawed monopolies, promoted competition in American businesses, and reflected concerns about the power of corporations during a time of rapid industrialization. Its passage during the Gilded Age encouraged government intervention in the economy and restored competitive markets through regulation. It was also passed at a time when European immigrants moved to the U.S. to work. Despite its limitations, it regulated corporations and promoted fair competition. It also laid the foundation for the Clayton Antitrust Act and the Federal Trade Commission Act in the Progressive Era.

Morrill Act

An 1862 act that provided federal land to states to fund the establishment of colleges focused on agriculture and mechanics. Passed during the Civil War, this act promoted higher education and was instrumental in the expansion of land-grant universities. It also shaped social and cultural development during westward expansion. It also laid the foundation for future educational reforms and highlighted the importance of practical education in fostering economic growth.

Homestead Act

An 1862 act that granted 160 acres of land to settlers, provided they improve the land by developing farms and cultivating crops. Passed during the Civil War, this act played a role in encouraging westward migration and allowed settlers to keep their land after 5 years. It also encouraged families to settle on millions of acres of land and influenced demographic shifts in the West. It transformed the American economy by promoting agricultural development and stimulating industries related to farming and infrastructure.

Battle of Little Bighorn

An 1876 conflict between the U.S. Army (led by George Custer) and a coalition of Indian tribes (led by Chief Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull). The conflict represented the Indians' resistance against westward expansion and highlighted the tensions over land and cultural identity in the West. It arose from conflicts between the Indians and U.S. settlers as well as broken treaties that caused the Indians to resist invasion on their territories. The battle led to Custer's death and caused the U.S. government to increase military efforts to reduce resistance from the Indians.

Ghost Dance

A religious movement that emerged among Indians in the late 19th century as a response to the effects of westward expansion and the loss of land. It aimed to restore Indian culture, unite tribes, and resist oppression from white settlers. Wovoka popularized the movement, and although it was a way for tribes to deal with the changes of westward expansion, the U.S. government saw it as a threat and increased military presence. Although the movement became a symbol for Indian resistance against oppression, tensions between them and the U.S. government led to the Massacre at Wounded Knee and ended it.

Massacre at Wounded Knee

An 1890 conflict where U.S. troops killed over 250 Lakota Indians in South Dakota. This conflict occurred during westward expansion and after the Ghost Dance movement was seen as a threat and took place when U.S. troops attempted to disarm a group of Lakota Indians. It strained relations between the U.S. government and the Indians further and illustrated how far the government would go to maintain control and push westward expansion. It ended Indian resistance in the Great Plans and showed the consequences of U.S. policies towards Indigenous populations.

Wovoka

An Indian religious leader who led the Ghost Dance. He emerged during a period of Indian resistance to westward expansion and government policies that sought to suppress his people. His teachings promised a future where Indians would regain their lands, the buffalo would return, and white settlers would disappear if they embrace the Ghost Dance. His movement heightened tensions with the U.S. government and contributed to the events that caused the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890).

Dawes Act

An 1867 act named after Congressman Henry Dawes that aimed to accommodate Indians by giving them plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. It was passed during westward expansion to help the U.S. weaken tribal sovereignty. This act represented a shift in U.S. policy from communal land ownership to individual land ownership and reflected themes of westward expansion. It contributed to the erosion of Indian cultures by selling their territory to benefit U.S. expansion and economic interests.

Comstock Lode

A silver ore deposit discovered in Nevada in 1859. It emerged during the 19th century mining boom, attracted prospectors, and led to the growth of cities like Virginia City. The wealth from this deposit helped finance the Union during the Civil War and contributed to the West's economic expansion. It also caused advancements in mining technology (like the square set timbering system) and played a role in Nevada's growth in 1864.

Ludlow Massacre

A 1914 violent conflict that occurred in Colorado and involved coal miners and the Colorado National Guard. It occurred during a labor strike against John D. Rockefeller's Colorado Fuel and Iron Company where workers protested low wages and poor work and living conditions. The conflict became a symbol for corporate and government oppression of labor movements and resulted in the deaths of 25 people. It also showed the brutality of labor disputes and contributed to future labor reforms.

Roosevelt Corollary

President Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine that asserted the right of the U.S. to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain order. It emerged during as a response to fears of European intervention in Latin America during financial crises and caused military actions in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. The extension increased Latin American resentment towards the U.S. and allowed the U.S. to prevent European involvement or chaos in neighboring countries. It also allowed the U.S. to use the Monroe Doctrine as a way to intervene in international affairs.

U.S.S. Maine

A U.S. Navy ship that mysteriously sank in Havana Harbor in 1898. The ship was sent to Havana to protect American interest during the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain. Although the explosion's cause is still unknown, yellow journalism blamed Spain and caused the public to support military action against Spain. The increasing support then led to Congress declaring war on Spain (the Spanish-American War) and the U.S. acquiring overseas territories.

Gentlemen's Agreement

A 1907 informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan to limit Japanese immigration to the U.S. The arrangement emerged from rising anti-Japanese sentiments in California and aimed to ease tensions between the two nations while addressing immigration and labor competition concerns. While Japan agreed to limit emigration, the U.S. promised to maintain the rights and opportunities of Japanese immigrants who were already there. The agreement laid the foundation for future restrictive immigration policies and reflected racial discrimination in U.S. immigration law.

Farmers' Alliance

A late 19th century organization that advocated for the interests of farmers across the U.S. It emerged when farmers faced economic hardships due to declining crop prices and increasing debts and sought to address their challenges through cooperation and railroad regulations. The organization spread throughout the Midwest and the South and helped farmers access goods and services through cooperative stores and credit unions. Its influence further contributed to the rise of the Populist Party, which pushed for political and economic reforms in the 1890s.

Ocala Demands

A set of political and economic proposals by the Farmers' Alliance in 1890 in Florida that aimed to address their economic struggles. These proposals emerged when farmers faced economic hardships due to declining crop prices and increasing debts. They also advocated for railroad regulations, lower tariffs, a sub-treasury system, and a graduated income tax. These demands laid the foundation for the Populist Party, brought issues like railroad regulation and monetary reform into U.S. politics, and set a precedent for future movements regarding agricultural reform and economic inequality.

William Jennings Bryan

An American politician of the Democratic Party who is known for his advocacy of populism and progressive causes. He gained recognition for his 1896 "Cross of Gold" speech, which advocated for the free coinage of silver to support farmers and working-class Americans and exposed the division between industrialists and agricultural interests. He further became a key figure during the Gilded Age when he promoted women's suffrage and anti-imperialism and shaped progressive reforms related to labor rights and income tax. His later role in the Scopes Trial further solidified his legacy since it showed his religious beliefs and opposition to modernism and evolution.

Square Deal

President Theodore Roosevelt's domestic program that aimed to ensure fairness for workers, consumers, and businesses through consumer protection, natural resource conservation, and corporate regulations. It emerged during the Progressive Era and promoted the idea that the federal government should play a role in regulating business practices and protecting consumers. It shaped modern regulatory policies and established a precedent for government involvement in economic matters. It also laid the foundation for future reforms in labor rights, consumer protection, and environmental conservation.

Niagara Movement

A 1905 civil rights organization founded by W. E. B. Du Bois that opposed Booker T. Washington's gradualist approach and advocated for full civil rights for blacks. It emerged during the Jim Crow era and allowed 29 blacks to create a list of demands, which included the right to vote, an end to segregation, and equality for economic opportunities. Although it failed due to limited financial resources, internal disagreements, and opposition from Washington and his supporters, the organization still influenced future civil rights movements. It also laid the foundation for the NAACP in 1909, which became the leading organization for racial equality in the 20th century.

Muller v. Oregon

A 1908 Supreme Court case that upheld an Oregon law that limited women's workdays to 10 hours to protect their health. This case emerged during the Progressive Era when labor reforms sought to improve work conditions. The Supreme Court, influenced by the Brandeis Brief defense, accepted the argument that long working hours harmed women's health and justified special protections. Although the ruling contributed to labor reforms during the Progressive Era, it reinforced gender discrimination by establishing a precedent for treating women differently under labor laws.

Gavrilo Princip

A Bosnian Serb nationalist who is known for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914. The assassination took place at a time of rising tensions in the Balkans, where Slavic groups sought independence from Austro-Hungarian rule. His assassination reflected a larger movement that challenged imperial authorities and demonstrated how quickly European conflicts could escalate. It also is considered to be the immediate catalyst for World War I since it encouraged European powers to form alliances.

Battle of Tannenberg

A 1914 battle where Germany achieved a victory over Russia. It took place in East Prussia during World War I and involved the German 8th Army destroying the Russian 2nd Army due to the leading Russian commanders not effectively communicating with each other. The battle demonstrated Germany's military strategies and use of railroads to outmaneuver larger forces. It also weakened Russia's position on the Eastern Front and contributed to its military decline and instability that led to the Russian Revolution.

Preparedness Movement

A 1914 U.S. movement that began to increase military capabilities in response to growing global conflicts. This movement emerged before the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, and its leaders urged the U.S. to build its armed forces to prepare for potential involvement in the war. It influenced policies that expanded the U.S. military, such as the National Defense Act (1916). The movement also intensified debates between isolationists and interventionists and shaped public opinion on U.S. involvement in global conflicts.

Henry Johnson

An African American solider of the 369th Infantry Regiment who defended Allied lines, saved a soldier from capture, and prevented a German raid from reaching his French allies. He served during World War I and single-handedly fought off numerous German soldiers despite suffering 21 wounds. Although the U.S. refused to recognize his actions due to racial discrimination, France awarded him its highest award and the public now knew him as "Black Death." France's recognition helped challenge racial stereotypes and highlighted the contributions of African American soldiers in World War I.

Food Administration

A 1917 government agency responsible for regulating the production and distribution of food to support the war effort. The agency was established during World War I, and it ensured food supplies for both military personnel and civilians and promoted conservation and an efficient use of resources. The campaigns it promoted, such as "Meatless Mondays" and "Wheatless Wednesdays," encouraged citizens to participate in the war effort by making sacrifices in food consumption and created a sense of unity in the U.S. Its success helped maintain food supplies and contributed to America's status as a major food supplier to the Allies.

George Custer

A U.S. Army officer known for his role in the American Indian Wars. Although he gained his reputation during the Civil War as a Union general, he became infamous for his defeat at the Battle of Little Bighorn (1876), where Chief Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull defeated his forces. His defeat is significant because it represents the consequences of American expansionism and its impact on the Indians. His controversial reputation continues to affect discussions regarding westward expansion and the treatment of Indigenous people.

Transcontinental Railroad

An 1869 railroad that connected the eastern U.S. with the Pacific Coast. It was completed by the Union Pacific and Central Pacific with the labor of many Chinese and Irish immigrants during the period of westward expansion. The railroad was significant because it facilitated migration and settlement in the West and contributed to population growth in areas like California and Nevada. Although it also reduced travel time across the U.S. and facilitated trade, migration, and economic growth, it also displaced the Indians to expand the U.S. economy.

Compromise of 1877

An 1877 informal agreement between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden that resolved the 1876 election by granting Hayes the presidency in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This agreement occurred near the end of Reconstruction and allowed the South to regain control over their lands. The compromise is significant because it led to the widespread disenfranchisement of black citizens and the rise of Jim Crow laws. It also was a symbol of the government abandoning Reconstruction for black people in the U.S.

Plessy v. Ferguson

An 1896 U.S. Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine. This case came from Homer Plessy’s challenge to Louisiana’s segregation laws on railroad cars during the Gilded Age. The case is significant because it legalized racial discrimination and provided justification for segregation in schools, transportation, and other public facilities. It also symbolized the legalization of segregation and reinforced institutional racism until Brown v. Board of Education (1954).