Studied by 2 people
What is Universality?
Any characteristic of humans that can be applied to all
What is Gender Bias?
Differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes rather than real evidence
What is Beta Bias?
Minimising the differences between men and women
↳ Often happens when findings are obtained form males and generalised to females
Give an exampke of Beta Bias in research
Fight or Flight Stress Response
↳ Suggests that from reserach w/ a purely male sample that F/F is the same for both men and women
What is Alpha Bias?
Exagerating or Overestimating the differences between men and women
Give an example of Alpha Bias in research
Freud - Penis Envy
↳ Suggested femininity is a failed form of masulinity and women have weaker superegos - reflection of society at the time
What is Androcentrism?
Taking male behaviour/thinking as the norm
↳ This often is a result of male dominated psychology
Give an example of Androcentrism in research
Asch (1955) research into confromnity
Milgram 1963 research into Obedience
Give a way in which gender bias could be combatted
Taking a feminist perspective
↳ Provides a view of women as regular people, not deficient men
However, gynocentrism could also pose a new issue
Give one criticism of Gender Bias
Promotes Sexism
↳ A lack of female researchers means that female concerns may not be reflected in the questions asked
What is Culture Bias?
A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviour through the norms of your own culture
What is Ethnocentrism?
The belief that your own culture is superior
↳ This causes discrimination or prejudice against other cultures, regarding them as deficient or underdeveloped
Give an example of ethnocentrism in research
Ainsworth’s strange situation
↳ Criticized as only reflecting Western norms of attachment + child rearing processes
What is an emic?
Behaviour constructs that are specific to a culture
↳ Shaking hands v. Bowing to greet
What is an etic?
Behaviours that are universal to all cultures
What are imposed etics?
When emics and etics get mistaken for eachother
↳ e.g sees a Nigerian emic and generalises to whole of Africa
What is Cultural Relataivism?
The idea that norms and values can only be understood in a meaningful way within specific social contexts
Give a danger of culturally biased research
Reinforces Ethnic Stereotypes
↳ US Army IQ test said Hispanics and AAfrican-Americans had the lowest IQ but the questions were too culturally specific to be a valid measure of IQ
Give a way in which culture bias can be resolved
The Emergence of Cultural Psychology
↳ By traveling to other countries to gain an increased understanding about the norms of the culture theyre iinvesitigationg, and sharing ideas with other researchers, ethnocentrism is reduced
What is meant by Free Will?
Free Will is the belief we are able to control and choose our course of action
What is meant by Determinism?
The belief that all events are predetermined by precursor events and conditions
What is Hard Determinism?
Environment, Heredity + ecxternal influences determine the way people act and so they are not responsible for their actions
↳ i.e Bradley Waldroup (family of killers)
What is Soft Determinism?
Acknowledges alll events have causes but believes the choices made are the persons own free will
↳ being poor doesn't make you steal, but it may make you more likely to take that route through desperation
What is Biological Determinism?
Genes, Brain Structure + Neurotransmittters are the only cause for psychological issues
↳ i.e Depression is thought to be caused by issues w/ reuptake of seretonin
What is Environmental Determinism?
Environment (upbringing, geography, education level)
↳ i.e if you face significant trauma before the age of 16, you are 3x more likely to develop schizophrenia
What is Psychic Determinism?
Personality is determined by our childhod experiences + thoughts are determined by our Id, Ego + Superego
Give an argument against Free Will
Free Will is an illusion
↳ Supported by Libet et al. (1983)
Found activity in the motor area before the perosn had a conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger
Give an argument against Determinism
It is agreed that neither biology or environment can be the sole factor in a person’s behaviour
Can be used to ‘justify’ violent crimes by reasoning it was pre-determined by genes
Which group of psychologists support the nature side of the N/N debate?
Nativists
What is meant by heritability?
The genetic transmission of mental + physcial characteristics from someone
Give an examples of research that fall on the Nature side of the N/N debate
Attachment
Aggression (MAOA)
Which group of psychologists support the nurture side of the N/N debate?
Empiricists
What does the Nurture side of the N/N debate suggest?
We are born without any innate mechanisms and therefore all behaviour is learned
Give an example of research that falls on the Nurture side of the N/N debate
Skinner’s Rats
Pavlov’s Dogs
What is Relative Importance?
How much more important one side of the N/N argument is than the other (as it is impossible for one side to be 100%)
What is an Interactionist Approach?
Considering both nature and nurture ias an explanation for behaviour
How does Epigentics prove a need for an Interactionist Stance?
Lifestyle, events we encounter + Diet can cause a change in our genetic activity without making a change in our genetic code
How does the Diathesis-Stress Model prove a need for an Interactionist Stance?
The idea that often predispositions (Diathesis) are triggered by Stresses to created the observable behaviour
Give two types of studies that support an Interactionist Approach
Twin Studies
Adoption Studies
What is meant by Constructivism?
People construct their own ‘nurture’ by actively seeking out environments that suit their nature
What is Holism?
Behaviour must be viewed as a whole and the sum of parts CANNOT explain the entire behaviour
Give an example of an approach to psychology that is holistic
Humanistic Psychology
↳ Individuals react as an organised whole
Whta is meant by Reductionism?
The process of breaking down behaviour into its simplest component
Give an example of an approach to psychology that is reductionistic
Cognitive Psychology
↳ Behaviour can be explained through theoretical models
What are the 3 levels of explanation for behaviour, according to reductionism?
Social + Cultural (norms, values + expectations)
Psychological (Environmental, Cognitive + Behavioural)
Biological (Neurochemical, genric, Brain Structure )
What is meant by Biological Reductionism?
Behaviour can be reduced to our biological features (Neurotransmitters, Hormones etc)
What is meant by Environmental Reductionism?
Behaviour is due to a stimulus response
↳ This includes Evolutionary + Cogntive explanations
Give a strength of Holism
Aids in studies on deindividuation
Give a weakness of Holism
Lack of Empirical evidence becuase it is harder to pinpoin the cause of the behaviour
Give a strength of Reductionism
Provides empirical evidence; Scientific
Give a weakness of Reductionism
Oversimplifies complex phenomena
↳ This may lead to ignoring other factor in the development of behaviour, reducing the validity of a behaviour
What is meant by the Idiographic approach?
Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature
What is meant by the Nomothetic approach?
Psychologist who take a nonmotheic approach seek universal laws that can be applied to everyone
Give some features of Idiographic research
Qualitative
Self-Report + Case Studies
Q-Sort
Give some features of Nomothetic research
Quantitative
Reductionist + Deterministic
Give an example of nomothetic research
Milgram (Obedience)
Asch ( Conformity)
Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
Skinner (Operant conditioning)
Give strengths of the Idiographic debate
Gain detailed descriptions of behaviour
Helps develop a holistic understanding of the individual
Give weakness of the Idiographic debate
Not generalisable to the wider population
Methods are subjective so replication of behaviour is difficult
Give a strength of the nomothetic approach
Can generalise to the wider population
Methods are objective, measurable, and can be verified
Give a weakness of the nomothetic approach
Genralised laws and principles may not apply to an individual
Understanding of the behaviour is often superficial
What are ethical implications?
Wider implicaations of psychological research that may cause lasting damage on participants and the groups they represent
When does an ethical issue arise?
When there is conflict between the welfare + right of the participants and the aims of the researcher
What is Socially Sensitive Research?
Siever + Stanley (1988)
↳ Studies where there are potential consequencea for the participants or the group the study represents
What are implications of the research question?
The question being asked can add to the credibility of prejudices within society e.g “Is homosexuality the result of poor parenting?”
What are the implications of dealing w/ Participants?
Balancing the maintenance of confidentiality and autonomy with participants rights + ethical guidelines
What are some implications of the way findings are used?
Institutional Context - Institutions funding research may caus here to be an alternative agenda to the findings
Social Context - Their research could be misenterpreted or used to justify discrimination or opposition to treatments
Give one negative effect of poor research design + its implications
May inflict harm on a group in society
↳ Sieber and Stanley (1988) found this has long lasting consequences
Note 
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