AQA Psychology - Issue and Debates

Paper 3

What is Universality?

Any characteristic of humans that can be applied to all

What is Gender Bias?

Differential treatment of males and females, based on stereotypes rather than real evidence

What is Beta Bias?

**Minimising** the differences between men and women

↳ Often happens when findings are obtained form **males** and generalised to **females**

Give an exampke of **Beta Bias** in research

**Fight or Flight Stress Response**

↳ Suggests that from reserach w/ a purely male sample that F/F is the same for both men and women

What is **Alpha Bias?**

**Exagerating** or **Overestimating** the differences between men and women

Give an example of **Alpha Bias** in research

**Freud - Penis Envy**

↳ Suggested femininity is a failed form of masulinity and women have weaker superegos - reflection of society at the time

What is **Androcentrism?**

Taking **male behaviour/thinking** as the **norm**

↳ This often is a result of male dominated psychology

Give an example of **Androcentrism** in research

* **Asch (1955) research into confromnity**
* Milgram 1963 research into Obedience

Give a way in which **gender bias** could be combatted

**Taking a feminist perspective**

↳ Provides a view of women as regular people, not deficient men

* However, **gynocentrism could also pose a new issue**

Give one **criticism** of **Gender Bias**

**Promotes Sexism**

↳ A lack of female researchers means that female concerns may not be reflected in the questions asked

What is **Culture Bias?**

A tendency to **ignore cultural differences** and interpret all behaviour through the **norms of your own culture**

What is **Ethnocentrism?**

**The belief that your own culture is superior**

↳ This causes discrimination or prejudice against other cultures, regarding them as deficient or underdeveloped

Give an example of **ethnocentrism** in research

**Ainsworth’s strange situation**

↳ Criticized as only reflecting Western norms of attachment + child rearing processes

What is an **emic?**

Behaviour constructs that are specific to a culture

↳ **Shaking hands v. Bowing to greet**

What is an **etic?**

Behaviours that are **universal** to all cultures

What are **imposed etics?**

When **emics** and **etics get mistaken for eachother**

↳ e.g sees a Nigerian emic and generalises to whole of Africa

What is **Cultural Relataivism?**

The idea that **norms and values** can only be understood in a **meaningful way** within specific social contexts

Give a **danger** of **culturally biased research**

**Reinforces Ethnic Stereotypes**

↳ US Army IQ test said Hispanics and AAfrican-Americans had the lowest IQ but the questions were too culturally specific to be a valid measure of IQ

Give a way in which **culture bias can be resolved**

The **Emergence of Cultural Psychology**

↳ By traveling to other countries to gain an increased understanding about the norms of the culture theyre iinvesitigationg, and sharing ideas with other researchers, **ethnocentrism is reduced**

What is meant by **Free Will?**

Free Will is the belief we are able to **control** and **choose our course of action**

What is meant by **Determinism?**

The belief that **all events are predetermined** by **precursor events** and **conditions**

What is **Hard Determinism?**

**Environment, Heredity + ecxternal influences determine the way people act and so they are not responsible for their actions**

↳ i.e Bradley Waldroup (family of killers)

What is **Soft Determinism?**

**Acknowledges alll events have causes but believes the choices made are the persons own free will**

↳ being poor doesn't **make you** steal, but it may make you **more likely** to take that route through desperation

What is **Biological Determinism?**

**Genes, Brain Structure + Neurotransmittters are the only cause for psychological issues**

↳ i.e Depression is thought to be caused by issues w/ reuptake of seretonin

What is **Environmental Determinism?**

**Environment (upbringing, geography, education level)**

↳ i.e if you face significant trauma before the age of 16, you are **3x** more likely to develop schizophrenia

What is **Psychic Determinism?**

**Personality is determined by our childhod experiences + thoughts are determined by our Id, Ego + Superego**

Give an argument **against** **Free Will**

**Free Will is an illusion**

↳ Supported by @@**Libet et al. (1983)**@@

* Found activity in the motor area before the perosn had a conscious awareness of the decision to move their finger

Give an argument **against Determinism**

* It is agreed that neither **biology** or **environment** can be the **sole factor in a person’s behaviour**
* Can be used to ‘**justify’ violent crimes** by reasoning it was pre-determined by genes

Which group of psychologists support the **nature** side of the N/N debate?

Nativists

What is meant by **heritability?**

The **genetic transmission** of mental + physcial characteristics from someone

Give an examples of research that fall on the **Nature side** of the N/N debate

* Attachment
* Aggression (MAOA)

Which group of psychologists support the **nurture** side of the N/N debate?

Empiricists

What does the **Nurture side** of the N/N debate suggest?

We are born **without** any **innate mechanisms** and therefore all behaviour is **learned**

Give an example of **research** that falls on the **Nurture** side of the N/N debate

* Skinner’s Rats
* Pavlov’s Dogs

What is **Relative Importance?**

How much **more important** one side of the N/N argument is than the other (as it is **impossible for one side to be 100%)**

What is an **Interactionist Approach?**

Considering both nature and nurture ias an explanation for behaviour

How does **Epigentics** prove a need for an **Interactionist** **Stance**?

Lifestyle, events we encounter + Diet can cause a **change in our genetic activity** without making a change in our **genetic code**

How does the **Diathesis-Stress Model** prove a need for an Interactionist Stance?

The idea that often predispositions (Diathesis) are triggered by Stresses to created the observable behaviour

Give **two** types of studies that support an **Interactionist Approach**

* Twin Studies
* Adoption Studies

What is meant by **Constructivism?**

People construct their own ‘**nurture’** by actively seeking out environments that suit their **nature**

What is **Holism?**

Behaviour must be viewed as a **whole** and the **sum of parts CANNOT** explain the entire behaviour

Give an example of an **approach to psychology** that is **holistic**

**Humanistic Psychology**

↳ Individuals react as an **organised whole**

Whta is meant by **Reductionism?**

The process of **breaking down behaviour** into its simplest component

Give an example of an **approach to psychology** that is **reductionistic**

**Cognitive Psychology**

↳ Behaviour can be explained through theoretical models

What are the **3** levels of explanation for behaviour, according to **reductionism**?

* **Social + Cultural** (norms, values + expectations)
* **Psychological** (Environmental, Cognitive + Behavioural)
* **Biological** (Neurochemical, genric, Brain Structure )

What is meant by **Biological Reductionism?**

Behaviour can be reduced to our **biological features** (Neurotransmitters, Hormones etc)

What is meant by **Environmental Reductionism?**

Behaviour is due to a **stimulus response**

↳ This includes Evolutionary + Cogntive explanations

Give a **strength** of **Holism**

Aids in studies on **deindividuation**

Give a **weakness** of **Holism**

Lack of Empirical evidence becuase it is harder to pinpoin the cause of the behaviour

Give a **strength** of **Reductionism**

Provides **empirical evidence;** Scientific

Give a **weakness** of **Reductionism**

**Oversimplifies complex phenomena**

↳ This may lead to ignoring other factor in the development of behaviour, reducing the validity of a behaviour

What is meant by the **Idiographic** approach?

 Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the **individual** and emphasise the **unique personal experience of human nature**

What is meant by the **Nomothetic** approach?

Psychologist who take a nonmotheic approach seek **universal laws** that can be applied to **everyone**

Give some features of **Idiographic** research

* **Qualitative**
* Self-Report + Case Studies
* Q-Sort

Give some features of **Nomothetic** research

* **Quantitative**
* Reductionist + Deterministic

Give an example of **nomothetic research**

* Milgram (Obedience)
* Asch ( Conformity)
* Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
* Skinner (Operant conditioning)

Give **strengths** of the **Idiographic** debate

* Gain **detailed** descriptions of **behaviour**
* Helps develop a **holistic understanding** of the **individual**

Give **weakness** of the **Idiographic** debate

* **Not generalisable** to the **wider population**
* Methods are **subjective** so **replication** of behaviour is difficult

Give a **strength** of the **nomothetic approach**

* Can **generalise** to the wider population
* Methods are **objective, measurable,** and can be **verified**

Give a **weakness** of the **nomothetic** approach

* **Genralised laws and principles may not apply to an individual**
* Understanding of the behaviour is often **superficial**

What are **ethical implications?**

Wider implicaations of psychological research that may cause lasting damage on participants and the groups they represent

When does an **ethical issue arise?**

When there is **conflict** between the **welfare + right of the participants** and the **aims** of the researcher

What is **Socially Sensitive Research?**

**Siever + Stanley (1988)**

↳ Studies where there are **potential consequencea** for the participants or the group the study represents

What are implications of **the research question?**

The question being asked can add to the **credibility** of **prejudices** within society e.g *“Is homosexuality the result of poor parenting?”*

What are the **implications** of **dealing w/ Participants?**

**Balancing** the **maintenance** of **confidentiality** and **autonomy** with **participants** **rights** + **ethical guidelines**

What are some implications of **the way findings are used?**

* **Institutional Context** - Institutions funding research may caus here to be an alternative agenda to the findings
* **Social Context** - Their research could be **misenterpreted** or used to justify **discrimination** or opposition to **treatments**

Give one **negative effect** of poor research design + its implications

@@May inflict harm on a group in society@@

↳ **Sieber and Stanley** (1988) found this has long lasting consequences