AP Psych Exam Study Guide

Comprehensive AP Psychology Flashcard Set that helped me get a 5

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish

Experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Level of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Biological psychology

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

Psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

Behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin

Social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

Personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Human factors psychology

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments

Counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

Clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

Introspection

a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you knew that all along

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Ex: human intelligence -- what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Case Study

An observation technique in which ONE person or GROUP is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Population

All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatter plot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo Effect

any effect that seems to be a consequence of administering a placebo

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Dependent Variables

The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it

Standard Deviations

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve/distribution

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Informed Consent

an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Sample

items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Inferential Statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

Placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Scientific Attitude

Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct—-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs & judgements

Biological Psychology

Scientific study of links between biology (genetic, neural, hormonal) & psychological processes

Neurons (nerve cells)

a nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrite Fibers

neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages & conduct impulses toward the cell body

Cell Body

central part of the neuron which contains the nucleus

Nucleus

contains the neuron’s genetic code

Axon

Neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

fatty tissue layer encasing axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed

Axon terminal

the end of an axon that sends out the signals to other cells via neurotransmitters

Action Potential

a neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory Period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Threshold

a level of stimulation required to trigger a neural response

All-Or-None Response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with full strength response) or not firing

Synapse

junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron & the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap to send messages between neuron; influence the body and its function

Acetylcholine (ACh)

enables muscle action, learning & memory; these neurons deteriorate with Alzheimers

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, & emotion; oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors & decreased mobility in Parkinson’s Disease

Serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, & arousal; undersupply linked to depression; some antidepressants increase these levels

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness & arousal; undersupply linked to depressed mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

major inhibitory neurotransmitter; undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, & insomnia

Glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; oversupply linked to overstimulated brain, producing migraines and seizures

Reuptake

neurotransmitters’ reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control & pleasure

Agonist

stimulates responses by binding to receptors; in artificial substances, it is similar to neurotransmitters, and mimics its effect

Antagonist

blocks responses by binding to receptors; in artifical substances, it blocks release of certain neurotransmitters, and it similar enough to bind to receptor site but not to stimulate a response

Nervous System

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network

Central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord; body’s decision maker

Peripheral nervous system

sensory & motor neurons that connect central nervous system to rest of body; gathers info & transmits CNS decision to other body parts

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables; connects the CNS with muscles, glands, & sense organs

Sensory neurons

carry messages from body’s tissues & sensory receptors to brain & spinal cord