6.The Korean War 1950-53

Beginning of the Korean War

At Potsdam the Korean Peninsula was taken from Japanese control and to share it between the powers it was divided into two occupation zones down a ‘38th parallel’. The North was the Soviet Zone, and the South was the American zone. Despite being of little interest to the superpowers, in August 1948 the USA created the (Capitalist) Republic of Korea in its Southern zone which led to the creation of the (Communist) Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in the Soviet’s North zone the next month.

Causes of the Korean War: positions and aims of Syngman Rhee

Both the USA and USSR wanted leaders in Korea whom they could control, in the (North) Soviet Zone Kim Il Sung became leader of the Korean Provisional People’s Committee. In the (South) American Zone Syngman Rhee emerged as the anti-Communist leader. Both sides wanted no form of coalition that included their rival groups.

The issue is both wanted the restoration of Korea under a single leader, Rhee was a nationalist who wanted to reunite Korea as a sovereign country that would not tolerate Communism in any form. So, he wanted Communism removed from the North but also a stronger South to resist threats from the USSR. He therefore needed a guarantee from the US that they would protect the South and provide them with military aid that allowed the South Korean Army to enforce national Korean reunification.

Causes of the Korean War: positions and aims of Kim Il Sung

Kim Il Sung took an equal stance but wanted Korea to be a united Communist country. He developed a strategy based on winning external support in order to increase the strength of the North, he tried to persuade Stalin and Zedong to support an attack on the South by:
-it would be a decisive and rapid victory.
-there was already 200k Communist supporters in the South.
-there were well-organised guerrilla forces operating in the South.
-there’d be no time for the USA to intervene.
(He even tried to undermine China’s support when convincing Stalin and vice versa).

It was clear both leaders would be willing to use force to make their desires occur, e.g., guerrilla action that destabilises the South and undermines Rhee’s regime and in late 1949 Rhee was confident in an attack on the North, particularly because a reunified Korea would be easier to defend than a divided one.

Causes of the Korean War: the USSR

Stalin was aware of 7.5k US troops in the South and rejected Kim Il Sung’s pleas and recommended him to strengthen his guerrilla forces in the South. Despite still supporting the North he didn’t want to initiate a fight he wasn’t sure he’d win.

By February 1950 Stalin changed his mind:
-his position had shifted as the international scene had changed.
-Chinese Communists had defeated nationalists and set up the People’s Republic of China
-the Americans had not included South Korea in their Defensive Perimeter Strategy.
-a united Communist Korea state as an ally to the USSR would be ideal, strengthening Soviet borders, pressurise Japan and provide economic opportunities for the USSR.
-if he stalled on supporting the North, Kim Il Sung could turn to China and therefore undermine Soviet influence.
-the USSR had nuclear technology by 1950.

What did Stalin do?

He provided north Korea with 1.6k pieces of artillery, 178 military aircraft and 258 T-34 tanks.

However, he wasn’t willing to commit troops to participate in a war:
-a war in Korea might bring in the USA creating a US-Soviet conflict that could spread into Europe.
He decided that indirect military support was the safest option and made it clear that if the North Korean venture failed, he would not commit his own troops against the Americans.

Causes of the Korean War: China

Mao was not particularly concerned with Korea, too focused on consolidating Communist control in China and regaining control of Taiwan from the Nationalists. And when North Korea invaded the South China did not intervene, determined to take no action that would inflame the US.

Overall, China wanted to focus on its own geostrategic priorities, particularly involving the future of Taiwan.

But, when Truman ordered the US 7th fleet to defend Taiwan by positioning them between China and Taiwan, China’s involvement in the war began:
“On 5 January, Truman said in an announcement that the United States would not intervene in Taiwan. Now his conduct proves what he said was false.”

Mao's debate

However, there was much opposition to Mao’s view in China, for example Zhou Enlai argued that consolidation of the Communist revolution must prevail without external distractions.

But Mao was still committed to sending military volunteers to support North Korea, in reality his options were limited – he didn’t want China’s image to be permanently tarnished in the eyes of the Communist world and he wanted to be seen supporting fellow Communists in their struggle against Capitalist imperialism, and in November 1950 China would be compelled to intervene anyways due to pressure from Stalin.

Causes of the Korean War: the USA

For a while the struggle between North and South Korea was of little importance to the US too, they had Japan to focus on, reviving its economy in order to strengthen US national security.

The North’s invasion of the South in Korea fundamentally re-orientated US policy toward Korea, alarming the USA.

In May 1951, Acheson decided that North Korea’s purpose was to destabilise Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines, and even to influence the position in Europe. He argued that these areas would become unsettled if the North’s Communist assault on South Korea was successful.

Causes of the Korean War: the UN

At this point the USSR was boycotting the Security Council, due to the majority decision to recognise the Republic of China under Jiang Jieshi as the legitimate government (Nationalist) despite the Communist Chinese Civil War victory.

This meant that the USSR could not use its power of veto to block Security Council action/UN intervention and so a resolution requiring an immediate ceasefire was passed.

Therefore, Truman legitimised the involvement in Korea by turning the process into a UN intervention – removing the possibility of the USA appearing to be unilaterally implementing containment on a global scale.

This removed responsibility from US but still allowed them to achieve the end they wanted – the protection of South Korea.

US intervention in the war

Immediate US intervention under the United Nations prevented a rapid North Korean victory, this force was led by General Douglas MacArthur.

Phase 1: June-Sept 1950, offensive

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea’s forces advanced into the South and reached a perimeter point near Pusan.
Chinese troops were massed in Manchuria ready to move into Korea.
Through the UN, 29 states committed to military, economic or medical aid.

Phase 2: Sept-Nov 1950, counter-offensive/offensive.

MacArthur landed at Inchon and succeeded in forcing North Korean forces back across 38th parallel.
In Oct, Mao sent 300k troops across the Yalu River into the North.
This led to a major counterattack against the UN forces.

Phase 3: Dec 1950-June 1951, stabilisation and negotiation.

By Jan Chinese forces had pushed across the 38th parallel and captured Seoul.
In Feb the UN condemned China as an aggressor.
In April MacArthur was dismissed by Truman, due to his demands for US forces to push into the North and to use air strikes and nuclear weapons against them. Truman feared an extension to the war, involving the USSR.
By June, the USA was indicating to China and USSR that they were willing to negotiate a ceasefire.

Phase 4: June 1951-July 1953, stalemate and peace.

There were no significant military offensives in this period. Lack of UN action convinced Mao and Stalin there was a genuine desire for peace.
The USA consolidated its relationship with Japan, feeling more secure.
But there were long delays to reach a final settlement due to a natural disinclination to cooperate with each other.

The settlement

Negotiations started in July 1951, but the armistice was agreed in Panmunjom 2 years later in July 1953.
(It agreed there was to be a military demarcation line with a demilitarised zone of 2km each side, military forces should withdraw to their respective territories, the repatriation of prisoners would begin (returning them to their own countries).

Rhee was the main obstructor to these negotiations, wanting to commit the USA to stronger ties with South Korea by forcing them into a dependency upon the South for containment.
Another delaying factor was removed when Stalin died in March 1953, being replaced by the more compliant Georgy Malenkov.

The impact of the Korean War

Long term security of both the North and the South was protected.

Long term security of Taiwan, guaranteed by the USA. China lost its chance to absorb Taiwan after the Korean war as the USA thought it should remain under Nationalist control.

Uneasy stability that continues until this day, that no further warfare would take place on the Korean peninsula.

Huge economic pressure was put on the USSR, and so Stalin accelerated the industrialisation of Eastern Europe, leading to a massive reduction in the availability of consumer goods.

Strengthened military resources in Western Europe, West Germany was allowed to rearm.

A deepening of Cold War uncertainty in Europe.