Ap Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, Personality

Motivation

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

Classic Motivation Theories

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

Ghrelin

Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain.

Orexin

Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus.

Insulin

Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose.

Leptin

Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

PYY

Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain.

The Appetite Hormone

Increases Appetite

Ghrelin, Orexin

Decreases Appetite

Insulin, Leptin, PYY

set point

the point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output

obesity

defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher. (Overweight individuals have a BMI of 25 or higher.)

asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity.

Sexual Response Cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson— excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.'

4 Stages:

1. Excitement: The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge.

2. Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. A man’s penis becomes fully engorged—to an average length of 5.6 inches. Some fluid— frequently containing enough live sperm to enable conception—may appear at its tip. A woman’s vaginal secretion continues to increase.

3. Orgasm: Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. The pleasurable feeling of sexual release is much the same for both sexes.

4. Resolution: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood. This happens relatively quickly if orgasm has occurred, relatively slowly otherwise. (It’s like the nasal tickle that goes away rapidly if you have sneezed, slowly otherwise.) Men then enter a refractory period that lasts from a few minutes to a day or more, during which they are incapable of another orgasm. A woman’s much shorter refractory period may enable her, if restimulated during or soon after resolution, to have more orgasms.

refractory period

in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm

Sexual Motivation Factors

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group.

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus: stimulus → arousal → emotion.

Example: We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid.

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

Example: Our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid.

Schachter-Singer theory (two-factor theory)

the theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Example: We may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context.

Zajonc; LeDoux Theory

Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal.

Example: We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat.

Lazarus Theory

Cognitive appraisal (“Is it dangerous or not?”)—sometimes without our awareness—defines emotion

Example: The sound is “just the wind.”

5 Emotion Theories

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion. (A lot of the times incorrect)

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

Example:

Walk for a few minutes with short, shuffling steps, keeping your eyes downcast. Now walk around taking long strides, with your arms swinging and your eyes looking straight ahead. Can you feel your mood shift? Going through the motions awakens the emotions.

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases— alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

3 Phases:

1. Alarm reaction → mobilize resources

2. Resistance → cope with stressor

3. Exhaustion → reserved depleted

Mnemonic Device:

All Rabbits Eat

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.

catharsis

in psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

Example: Rage rooms

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety.

mindfulness meditation

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

(after an initial surge of pleasure, improvements become our “new normal,” and we then require something even better to give us a boost of happiness)

Example:

After winning the lottery you’ll feel elated due to your surge in wealth. Eventually, you will adapt to this wealth lifestyle; and it will not longer bring you happiness.

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

the instinctual, pleasure-seeking part of the personality

ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ________ operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

the rational, reality-oriented part of the personality; primarily concerned with practical solutions to satisfy your personal needs desires

Example:

Imagine you're offered a job that pays significantly more than your current job, but it requires you to relocate to a city where you have no friends or family. You're torn between accepting the job for financial reasons and staying in your current location for the sake of your social connections.

____ in Play:

• Your ___ would weigh the pros and cons of each option and consider the practical implications, such as financial stability, career advancement, and personal well-being.

• It might consider factors like the cost of living in the new city, job satisfaction, opportunities for growth, and the impact on your overall quality of life.

• The ____ would strive to find a compromise that satisfies both your immediate desires and your long-term goals, taking into account your personal needs and aspirations.

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

focuses on moral and ethical considerations involved in the decision making process to satisfy your desires

Example:

Imagine you're offered a job that pays significantly more than your current job, but it requires you to relocate to a city where you have no friends or family. You're torn between accepting the job for financial reasons and staying in your current location for the sake of your social connections.

_________ in Play:

• Your _______ would come into play when considering the moral and ethical implications of your decision.

• It might remind you of the importance of maintaining close relationships with friends and family and the potential emotional toll of moving away from your support network.

• The _______ might also urge you to consider the societal norms and values regarding loyalty, commitment, and responsibility towards loved ones.

• It could generate feelings of guilt or remorse if you prioritize financial gain over personal connections, especially if you believe that doing so would violate your moral standards or the expectations of others.

Freud’s psychosexual stages

Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos.

fixation

in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

Freud’s defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.

“True or False”

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

spotlight effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

self-esteem

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

self-efficacy

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

individualism

giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

conditional positive regard

a person's worth and value are contingent upon meeting certain conditions or standards set by others. These conditions might include achieving specific goals, behaving in certain ways, or conforming to particular expectations.

Carl Roger’s 3 parts of the person-centered approach

1. Genuineness (congruence)

2. Acceptance'

3. Empathy

Big 5 Traits

1. Openness (adventurous)

2. Consciousness (self-discipline)

3. Extroversion (outgoing, bubbly, assertive)

4. Agreeable (cooperative)

5. Neuroticism (emotional)

The 2 types of Conflict

1. Interpersonal: occurs between people

2. Intrapersonal: occurs within an individual when having to face a decision for an outcome

Types of Intrapersonal Conflict

1. Approach-Approach: 2 desirable outcomes but can only choose one

Ex: Imagine you're planning a vacation, and you have to choose between a tropical beach resort or a mountain retreat with stunning scenery.

2. Avoidant-Avoidant: 2 undesirable outcomes but must choose one

Ex: Should I study for my psych test or my Spanish test? (based on a true story)

3. Approach-Avoidant: One event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features or outcomes

Ex: Oh if If i go for him definitely get my heartbroken, but he’s 6’2 with a car (pros vs cons)

4. Multiple Approach Avoidant: All choices have pos and neg outcomes

Example: having to choose between multiple colleges (all colleges have things you like and dislike about them)