Studied by 10 people
Myers unit 8: Emotion, Motivation, and Stress Myers Unit 10: Personality
Motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Instinct
A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
Physiological need
a basic bodily requirement
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
Classic Motivation Theories
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger
Ghrelin
Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain.
Orexin
Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus.
Insulin
Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose.
Leptin
Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.
PYY
Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain.
The Appetite Hormone
Increases Appetite
Ghrelin, Orexin
Decreases Appetite
Insulin, Leptin, PYY
set point
the point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy output
obesity
defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher. (Overweight individuals have a BMI of 25 or higher.)
asexual
having no sexual attraction to others
testosterone
the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity.
Sexual Response Cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson— excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.'
4 Stages:
Excitement: The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge.
Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. A man’s penis becomes fully engorged—to an average length of 5.6 inches. Some fluid— frequently containing enough live sperm to enable conception—may appear at its tip. A woman’s vaginal secretion continues to increase.
Orgasm: Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. The pleasurable feeling of sexual release is much the same for both sexes.
Resolution: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood. This happens relatively quickly if orgasm has occurred, relatively slowly otherwise. (It’s like the nasal tickle that goes away rapidly if you have sneezed, slowly otherwise.) Men then enter a refractory period that lasts from a few minutes to a day or more, during which they are incapable of another orgasm. A woman’s much shorter refractory period may enable her, if restimulated during or soon after resolution, to have more orgasms.
refractory period
in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm
Sexual Motivation Factors
affiliation need
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group.
ostracism
deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption.
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.
grit
in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus: stimulus → arousal → emotion.
Example: We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid.
Cannon-Bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
Example: Our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid.
Schachter-Singer theory (two-factor theory)
the theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
Example: We may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context.
Zajonc; LeDoux Theory
Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal.
Example: We automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat.
Lazarus Theory
Cognitive appraisal (“Is it dangerous or not?”)—sometimes without our awareness—defines emotion
Example: The sound is “just the wind.”
5 Emotion Theories
polygraph
a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion. (A lot of the times incorrect)
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
Example:
Walk for a few minutes with short, shuffling steps, keeping your eyes downcast. Now walk around taking long strides, with your arms swinging and your eyes looking straight ahead. Can you feel your mood shift? Going through the motions awakens the emotions.
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases— alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
3 Phases:
Alarm reaction → mobilize resources
Resistance → cope with stressor
Exhaustion → reserved depleted
Mnemonic Device:
All Rabbits Eat
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.
coronary heart disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.
Type A
Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B
Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.
catharsis
in psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
Example: Rage rooms
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety.
mindfulness meditation
a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
subjective well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life.
adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
(after an initial surge of pleasure, improvements become our “new normal,” and we then require something even better to give us a boost of happiness)
Example:
After winning the lottery you’ll feel elated due to your surge in wealth. Eventually, you will adapt to this wealth lifestyle; and it will not longer bring you happiness.
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.
Personality
an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
psychodynamic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.
psychoanalysis
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
the instinctual, pleasure-seeking part of the personality
ego
the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ________ operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
the rational, reality-oriented part of the personality; primarily concerned with practical solutions to satisfy your personal needs desires
Example:
Imagine you're offered a job that pays significantly more than your current job, but it requires you to relocate to a city where you have no friends or family. You're torn between accepting the job for financial reasons and staying in your current location for the sake of your social connections.
____ in Play:
Your ___ would weigh the pros and cons of each option and consider the practical implications, such as financial stability, career advancement, and personal well-being.
It might consider factors like the cost of living in the new city, job satisfaction, opportunities for growth, and the impact on your overall quality of life.
The ____ would strive to find a compromise that satisfies both your immediate desires and your long-term goals, taking into account your personal needs and aspirations.
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
focuses on moral and ethical considerations involved in the decision making process to satisfy your desires
Example:
Imagine you're offered a job that pays significantly more than your current job, but it requires you to relocate to a city where you have no friends or family. You're torn between accepting the job for financial reasons and staying in your current location for the sake of your social connections.
_________ in Play:
Your _______ would come into play when considering the moral and ethical implications of your decision.
It might remind you of the importance of maintaining close relationships with friends and family and the potential emotional toll of moving away from your support network.
The _______ might also urge you to consider the societal norms and values regarding loyalty, commitment, and responsibility towards loved ones.
It could generate feelings of guilt or remorse if you prioritize financial gain over personal connections, especially if you believe that doing so would violate your moral standards or the expectations of others.
Freud’s psychosexual stages
Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex
according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos.
fixation
in psychoanalytic theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.
Freud’s defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.
projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
terror-management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.
humanistic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
self-transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.
“True or False”
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
behavioral approach
focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
spotlight effect
overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
self-esteem
one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.
self-efficacy
one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.
individualism
giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly
conditional positive regard
a person's worth and value are contingent upon meeting certain conditions or standards set by others. These conditions might include achieving specific goals, behaving in certain ways, or conforming to particular expectations.
Carl Roger’s 3 parts of the person-centered approach
Genuineness (congruence)
Acceptance'
Empathy
Big 5 Traits
Openness (adventurous)
Consciousness (self-discipline)
Extroversion (outgoing, bubbly, assertive)
Agreeable (cooperative)
Neuroticism (emotional)
The 2 types of Conflict
Interpersonal: occurs between people
Intrapersonal: occurs within an individual when having to face a decision for an outcome
Types of Intrapersonal Conflict
Approach-Approach: 2 desirable outcomes but can only choose one
Ex: Imagine you're planning a vacation, and you have to choose between a tropical beach resort or a mountain retreat with stunning scenery.
Avoidant-Avoidant: 2 undesirable outcomes but must choose one
Ex: Should I study for my psych test or my Spanish test? (based on a true story)
Approach-Avoidant: One event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features or outcomes
Ex: Oh if If i go for him definitely get my heartbroken, but he’s 6’2 with a car (pros vs cons)
Multiple Approach Avoidant: All choices have pos and neg outcomes
Example: having to choose between multiple colleges (all colleges have things you like and dislike about them)
Note 
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