Memory

Information-Processing Model

A model of memory that includes three steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage

The process of retaining information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Automatic Processing

Encoding that happens without conscious effort; includes time, space, and frequency.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; improved through rehearsal.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage; studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus.

Overlearning

Continuing to rehearse information even after it has been mastered; improves performance under stress.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall of items at the end of a list.

Von Restorff Effect

Unique or unusual items in a list are remembered more easily.

Types of Encoding

Includes visual (images), acoustic (sounds), and semantic (meaning).

Visual Encoding

Encoding of images and visual sensory information.

Acoustic Encoding

Encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

Semantic Encoding

Encoding of meaning; deeper processing leads to better memory.

Self-Reference Effect

The tendency to remember information better when it is personally relevant.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids or strategies that help you remember information (e.g., acronyms, rhymes).

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device where you associate information with specific locations in a familiar place.

Peg Word System

A mnemonic using pre-memorized rhyming words with numbers to remember new info.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.

Hierarchy

Organizing information based on relationships between concepts.

Sensory Memory

The brief, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Store

Part of sensory memory that holds visual information for less than half a second.

Echoic Store

Part of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 3 to 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Also known as working memory; holds a limited amount of information briefly (about 7 ± 2 items).

George Miller

Psychologist who discovered the short-term memory capacity of 7 ± 2 items.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system for knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Implicit Memory

Retention without conscious recollection; includes skills and conditioned responses.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, emotionally charged memory of a specific moment or event.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

The strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning and memory.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues (e.g., fill-in-the-blank).

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information with the help of cues (e.g., multiple choice).

Context Effect

Improved recall of information when the environment is the same as when learning occurred.

State-Dependent Memory

The tendency to recall information better when in the same physical or emotional state as during encoding.

Factors That Influence Memory

Includes attention, emotion, rehearsal, context, state, and sleep.

Consciousness

awarenes of yourself and your environment- several naturally occurring rhythms that affect wakefullness and sleep

Circadian Rhythm

occurs approximately once every 24 hours- sleep wake cycle

Ultradian Rhythm-

occurs more than once a day- cycling though stages of sleep

Infradian Rhythm-

occurs once a month or once a season- womans menstrual cycle

Symptoms of Sleep Deficit-

weakened immune system- increased levels of stress- damage to brain cells responsible for learning/memory- impaired concentration- irritability- hypertension

Sleep Per Night for Teenager-

most teens need 9 hours of sleep each night 

Part of brain that controls sleep/wake-

hypothalamus controls 24 hour rhythm of sleep/wake- monitors changes in light and dark- sends messages to parts of the body to initiate sleep

Melatonin

hormone that helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle- body begins producing it when it gets dark to signal sleep-melatonin builds while you sleep-light causes melatonin levels to begin to drop

Why we sleep- Preservation

keeps us safe- avoid dangers of the night

Restoration

 recuperation from the everyday wear and tear- rebuild tissue- memory consolidated + organized

Sleep Stages

90 minute ultradian rhythm cycling throughout sleep- n- rem, rem 

N-REM-

non rapid eye movement sleep

Stage 1-

stage 1: 5 minutes easy to be awakened- 

Stage 2

deeper sleep, 20 minutes, half of entire time asleep is in this stage- 

Stage ¾-

aka slow wave- sleep- 30 minutes long- move back up through stages 3, 2 and instead of going to 1 you enter REM

REM-

eyes move rapidly under closed lids- pulse, breathing increases- “paradoxical sleep”, dreaming - after first rem stage body goes through same 90 minute pattern- after two or three cycles- body removes stages 3, 4

Freud’s Theory-

interpretation of dreams- dreams were the key to inner conflicts- analysis could trace most dreams back unconscious desires, conflicts, etc, expressions of wish fullfillment

Information Processing

memory- going through the days experiences- REM sleep facilitates memory storage 

Physiological Function-

neural activity during REM provides periodic stimulation for our brains- infants spend significantly more time than adults in REM sleep- pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone during stages 3 and 4

Activation Synthesis-

 dreams mean nothing- minds attempt to make sense of random neural firing in the various regions of the “sleeping” brain

Cognitive Development-

dreams are simply part of the maturation process related to brain development- as we get older our dreams become more complex and intricate- dreams reflect what we’ve learned and experienced 

Insomnia

 recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep- causes: anxiety, depression, situational stress, caffeine, nicotine, 30% have apparent no cause- sleeping pills are addicting and inhibit REM sleep 

Sleep Apnea

repeated awakenings throughout the night as a result of not being able to breathe- wake up briefly to breathe again- male, loud snorer, overweigh, over 40- treatment through continuous positive airway pressure

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks- occurs when their nervos system begins aroused often from a strong emotion (laughter, crying, anger)

Somnambulism-

sleep walking, not dangerous to wake them, just difficult. Doesnt occur as a result of acting out a dream

Night Terrors

high arousal and an appearance of being terrified- mostly affect children- look like they are awake and terrified but are actually sleeping- child rarely has memory of it- different fro nightmares- occur during N-Rem sleep