Memory

Information-Processing Model – The model of memory that includes three steps: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding – The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage – The process of retaining information over time.

Retrieval – The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Automatic Processing – Encoding that happens without conscious effort; includes time, space, and frequency.

Effortful Processing – Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; improved through rehearsal.

Rehearsal – Repeating information to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage; studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus.

Overlearning – Continuing to rehearse information even after it has been mastered; improves performance under stress.

Serial Position Effect – Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.

Primacy Effect – Better recall of items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect – Better recall of items at the end of a list.

Von Restorff Effect – Unique or unusual items in a list are remembered more easily.

Types of Encoding – Includes visual (images), acoustic (sounds), and semantic (meaning).

Visual Encoding – Encoding of images and visual sensory information.

Acoustic Encoding – Encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

Semantic Encoding – Encoding of meaning; deeper processing leads to better memory.

Self-Reference Effect – The tendency to remember information better when it is personally relevant.

Mnemonic Devices – Memory aids or strategies that help you remember information (e.g., acronyms, rhymes).

Method of Loci – A mnemonic device where you associate information with specific locations in a familiar place.

Peg Word System – A mnemonic using pre-memorized rhyming words with numbers to remember new info.

Chunking – Grouping information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.

Hierarchy – Organizing information based on relationships between concepts.

Sensory Memory – The brief, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Store – Part of sensory memory that holds visual information for less than half a second.

Echoic Store – Part of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 3 to 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM) – Also known as working memory; holds a limited amount of information briefly (about 7 ± 2 items).

George Miller – Psychologist who discovered the short-term memory capacity of 7 ± 2 items.

Long-Term Memory (LTM) – The permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system for knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Explicit Memory – Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Implicit Memory – Retention without conscious recollection; includes skills and conditioned responses.

Flashbulb Memory – A vivid, emotionally charged memory of a specific moment or event.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) – The strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation; basis for learning and memory.

Recall – Retrieving information from memory without cues (e.g., fill-in-the-blank).

Recognition – Identifying previously learned information with the help of cues (e.g., multiple choice).

Context Effect – Improved recall of information when the environment is the same as when learning occurred.

State-Dependent Memory – The tendency to recall information better when in the same physical or emotional state as during encoding.

Factors That Influence Memory – Includes attention, emotion, rehearsal, context, state, and sleep.