ap psych mod 6 - developmental psychology

nature vs. nurture debate

the debate of how much our genetic inheritance (nature) influences us, versus our experiences and culture (nurture)

zygote

fertilised egg

embryo

the developing organism from about 2 weeks after fertilisation through the second month - organs begin to form and function

fetus

the developing organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth - organs such as the stomach begin to develop enough to allow the fetus a chance at survival if born early

teratogen

an agent such as a chemical or virus that can reach the embryo or fetus during development and cause harm, such as drugs or alcohol

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

a disorder marking physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by the person bearing their pregnancy’s heavy drinking - may include small, disproportionate head and abnormal facial features

rooting reflex

an infant’s reflex when touched on the cheek to search for the nipple

sucking reflex

an infant’s reflex to suck on anything placed in the mouth

startle reflex

an infant’s reflex in which arms and legs spring out quickly followed by fist clenching and loud crying when startled

grasping reflex

an infant’s reflex to grab hold of an object placed in their palm (hand/foot)

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

how does nature influence maturation?

biological maturation (nature) sets the basic course of development

how does nurture influence maturation?

experience (nurture) adjusts the course of development

developmental psychology

psychology focused on the way one’s behaviours and thoughts change over their lifespan

cross-sectional research

a research design with different participants of various ages compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences

longitudinal research

a research design in which the same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes

cross-sequential research

a research design in which different participants of various ages are compared at several points to determine both age-related differences and changes

categories of teratogens

infection (disease, STDs, etc.), environmental agents (radiation, groundwater contamination, etc.), and drugs and alcohol

what kind of development did jean piaget study?

cognitive development

what kind of development did lawrence kohlberg study?

moral development

what kind of development did erik erikson study?

psychosocial development

schema

concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences; a concept or framework that organises and interprets information

assimilation

the interpretation of our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas (current understandings)

accommodation

the adaptation of one’s schema (current understandings) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

the stage of piaget’s cognitive development theory from birth around 2, in which babies take in the world by their senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping)

object permanence

the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived directly

stranger anxiety

the distress that babies and toddlers feel when someone unfamiliar to them holds or approaches them

preoperational stage

the stage of piaget’s cognitive development theory from around 2 to about 6 or 7, in which children are able to represent things with words and images but not perform mental operations

egocentric

the characteristic of having difficulty perceiving things from another’s point of view

concrete operational stage

the stage of piaget’s cognitive development theory around age 7, in which children, when given concrete materials, begin to grasp operations like conservation

conservation

the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape

formal operational stage

the stage of piaget’s cognitive development theory by age 12, in which our reasoning expands from purely concrete to also encompass abstract thinking

mnemonic device to remember the stages of piaget’s cognitive development theory

Socks Pulled over Cold Feet / SPCF

theory of mind

the ability to infer others’ mental states and the behaviours they might predict

vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

rather than placing emphasis on how the child’s mind grows with interaction through the physical environment, he instead emphasised the social environment; by giving children new words and mentoring them, parents/teachers/adults provide a temporary scaffold

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development

the zone between what a child can and can’t do - i. e. what a child can do with help (e.g. training wheels on a bike).

criticisms for piaget’s theory

some believe that piaget underestimated children by placing limitations on the way they think, and some argue our cognitive skills continuously develop throughout our lifetimes instead of in distinct stages in childhood

what research idea inspired harry and margaret harlow’s experiment?

the attachment bond between infants and caregivers

harry and margaret harlow’s study

baby monkeys, when raised apart from their mothers, formed an attachment to their baby blanket, and when raised with both a wire mother with food and water and a cloth mother without, they preferred the cloth

critical period

the optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development

konrad lorenz’s research on the process of imprinting

discovered that although baby birds imprint best to their own species, they also can and will imprint to a variety of moving objects such as another species, a bouncing ball, and others

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life - once the attachment is formed, it is very difficult to reverse

ainsworth’s strange situation experiment procedure

observed mother-infant pairs at home during their first 6 months; later observed the 1-year old infants in a strange situation, commonly a laboratory playroom, with and without their mothers

ainsworth’s strange situation experiment findings

about 60% of infants and young children displayed secure attachment (in the presence of their mother they played comfortably, in her absence, they became distressed and sought contact with her when she returned), others displayed insecure attachment marked by either anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships (were less likely to explore their surroundings and could even cling to their mother, and in her absence, either cried loudly and remained upset or seemed indifferent to her departure and return)

in ainsworth’s strange situation experiment, what kind of mothers produced securely attached children?

sensitive, responsive mothers

in ainsworth’s strange situation experiment, what kind of mothers produced insecurely attached children?

insensitive, unresponsive mothers

difficult temperament

irritable, intense, unpredictable

easy temperament

cheerful, relaxed, feeding and sleeping on predictable schedules

erikson’s concept of basic trust

the sense that the world is predictable and reliable - attributed to early parenting (infants granted sensitive, loving caregivers form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear)

anxious attachment style

an attachment style in which one constantly craves acceptance but remains vigilant to signs of possible rejection

avoidant attachment style

an attachment style in which one experiences discomfort getting close to others and uses avoidant strategies to maintain their distance from others

self-concept

an understanding and assessment of who one is

self-esteem

how one feels about who one is

authoritarian parenting

coercive; imposes rules and expects obedience

permissive parenting

unrestraining; few demands and limits, little punishment

negligent parenting

uninolved; neither demanding nor responsive, careless, inattentive

authoritative parenting

confrontive; demanding and responsive, controls by setting rules, but encourages open discussion and allows exceptions

gender identity

one’s personal sense of being male/female/something else

gender roles

social expectations that guide our behaviour as a particular gender

social learning theory

the theory that we acquire our identity in childhood by observing and imitating others’ gender-linked behaviours and by being rewarded or punished for acting certain ways

gender typing

the acquisition or taking on of a ‘traditional’ male or female role in one’s cultures through language, toys, and dress

gender schema

our organisation of experiences of male/female characteristics that help us think about our gender identity

gender expression

the manner in which one outwardly expresses their gender to others whether by mannerisms, clothing, interests, possessions, or otherwise

rosenzweig and his colleagues’ research on rats

young rats raised in either solitary confinement or a communal playground - when later analysing the rats’ brains, those who lived in the enriched environment which simulated a natural one usually developed a heavier and thicker brain cortex

adolescence

the years spent morphing from child to adult, beginning with the physical beginnings of sexual maturity and ending with the social achievement of independent adult status

pre-conventional stage

the stage of kohlberg’s theory of moral development before age 9 in which the focus lies in self-interest - one obeys rules to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards

conventional stage

the stage of kohlberg’s theory of moral development in early adolescence in which the focus lies in upholding laws and rules to gain social approval or to maintain social order

post-conventional stage

the stage of kohlberg’s theory of moral development in adolescence and beyond in which actions reflect our belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

what criticism is offered for the postconventional stage of kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

it is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from large, individualistic societies

identity

the ideas of who one is as an individual, what one wishes to do with their life, what values one lives by, and what one believes in

social identity

one’s categorisation into communities in relation to the people around them

trust vs. mistrust

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in infancy up to 1 year in which if needs are well-met, infants will develop a sense of basic trust

autonomy vs. shame & doubt

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in toddlerhood from 1-3 years in which toddlers either learn to do things for themselves or to doubt their abilities

initiative vs. guilt

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in preschool from 3-6 years in which preschoolers either learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or to feel guilty about their efforts to function on their own

competence vs. inferiority

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in elementary/primary school from 6 years to puberty in which children either learn the pleasure of applying themselves or feel inferior

identity vs. role confusion

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in adolescence from teen years into the 20s in which teenagers either work at refining their sense of self through testing roles and then merging them to form their identity or become confused about who they are

intimacy vs. isolation

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in young adulthood from the 20s to early 40s in which young adults either struggle to form close relationships and be intimate or feel socially isolated

generativity vs. stagnation

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in middle adulthood from the 40s to 60s in which middle-aged people either discover a sense of contribution to society or feel a lack of purpose

integrity vs. despair

the stage of erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in late adulthood from the late 60s and up in which upon reflecting on their lives, older adults either feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

the source of most parent-child arguments

mundane things such as household chores, bedtime, or homework

emerging adulthood

the time between 18 to the mid-20s when in many western cultures, people are no longer adolescents but have also not yet achieved full independence as adults

infancy

up to 1 year, trust vs. mistrust

toddlerhood

1 to 3 years, autonomy vs. shame & doubt

preschool

3 to 6 years, initiative vs. guilt

elementary/primary school

6 years to puberty, competency vs. inferiority

adolescence

teens into 20s, identity vs. role confusion

young adulthood

20s to early 40s, intimacy vs. isolation

middle adulthood

40s to 60s, generativity vs. stagnation

late adulthood

late 60s and older, integrity vs. despair

physical changes in middle adulthood for both men and women

decrease in fertility and sexual activity

physical changes in middle adulthood for only women

menopause, decrease in estrogen levels

physical changes in middle adulthood for only men

decrease in sperm count, decrease in testosterone level

physical changes in late adulthood

health, sensory abilities, strength, stamina, etc.

why do cells stop reproducing with age?

the tips of chromosomes (telomeres) wear down

what enables longevity in late adulthood?

low stress and good health habits

changes in sensory abilities, strength, & stamina in late adulthood

visual sharpness diminishes, distance perception and adaptation to light-level changes diminishes, muscle strength/reaction time/stamina deteriorates, smell/hearing/touch deteriorates, the eye’s pupil shrinks and the lens become less transparent which reduces the amount of light that reaches the retina

changes in health in late adulthood

the immune system weakens, making older adults more susceptible to life-threatening ailments like cancer or pneumonia; they suffer from fewer short-term sicknesses like the common flu or colds due to the accumulation of antibodies throughout life

changes within the brain in late adulthood

slower processing of information, fatal car accident rates per mile driven sharply increase, brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy, the blood-brain barrier breaks down beginning in the hippocampus and furthering cognitive decline, the frontal lobes which help override impulses begin to atrophy (explaining increased impulsivity and blunt questions from older adults)

changes in exercise with aging in late adulthood

physical exercise slows aging, prevents obesity, heart disease, and maintains the telomeres that protect the chromosome ends and slow the progression of alzheimer’s, stimulates brain cell development and neural connection, reduces brain shrinkage, promotes neurogenesis (birth of new nerve cells) in the hippocampus, and increases the cellular mitochondria that help power muscle and brain cells