Studied by 10 people
hindsight bias
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it
overconfidence bias
people tend to think they know more than they do
tendency to perceive patterns in random events
people trust their intuition more than they should because intuitive thinking is flawed
empiricism
relying on observation, experimentation, or measurement.
observe
use one’s senses to learn about the properties of an event or an object
Limitations:
inconsistent
incomplete
hypothesis
testable prediction, often implied by a theory
precise, clearly worded statements that describe what researchers think may be true. often If/ then statements.
replication
repeating the essence of a research study
basic research
pure science that aims to increase knowledge base
ex: find out the current state of wellness among high school students, specifically LHS
applied research
scientific study that aims to influence practical problem
ex: present Mr.Baker with recommendations of how LHS can increase happiness & reduce student stress
operational definitions
a carefully worded statement of a property or procedure so others can replicate the study
[happiness is measured by the General Happiness score]
construct validity
extent to which the thing being measured adequately characterizes the property [happiness scale]
ex: does operational definition help characterize what we’re looking for
reliability
examination of how consistent and stable the results of an assessment are
inter-rater reliability
degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior
ex: if many people were able to count the same number of smiles
duchenne smile
long & intense through the contraction of 2 muscles. tugs at the corner of your mouth & around your “twinkling eyes”
demand characteristics
a subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave.
hawthorne effect
people will modify their behavior simply because they are being observed
observer bias
researchers expectations influence what they are observing
self fulfilling prophecy
high expectations lead to better performance and low expectations lead to worse - rosenthal study
double-blind study
neither the researcher not participant know what is be observed/measured
reduce demand characteristics & observer bias
descriptive research design
purpose: describes behaviors
how conducted: case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations
what is manipulated: nothing
weaknesses: no control of variables, single cases may be misleading
correlational research study
purpose: to detect naturally occurring relationships, to assess how well one variable predicts another
how conducted: compute statistical association, sometimes among survey responses
what is manipulated: nothing
weaknesses: does not specify cause and effect
experimental research study
purpose: manipulates variables to explore cause and effect
how conducted: manipulate one or more factors, use random assignment
what is manipulated: independent variable(s)
weaknesses: sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
descriptive research
used to define and describe behaviors or trait, may reveal relationships but is not causal. it is typically the first step in research.
case study/method
examines one individual in depth
cannot be used to generalize, does not explain behavior
naturalistic observations
records behavior in natural environment
great in early stages of research
can be revealing but does not explain behavior
surveys and interviews
Q’s that ask about past behaviors, personal attitudes, and beliefs.
random sample (fairly represents a population) to avoid a sampling bias
correlation
shows the relationship of 2 variables → predicts the possibility of cause and effect relationships but cannot prove them.
r can range from -1 to +1
confounding variable
occurs when an observed correlation between two variables can actually be explained by a third variable that hasn't been accounted for
illusory correlation
refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists ex. superstitions
regression toward the mean
refers to the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
→ suggest that when evaluating a situation, we must rely on the average rather than the outliers.
cross sectional study
study people of different groups (cohorts) at the same point in time → cohorts can be based on age, gender, income, etc.
data can come from surveys
advantages: inexpensive, can be completed quickly
disadvantages: different age groups are not necessarily much alike, differences may be due to between group differences not cohorts
longitudinal study
study the same group of people (cohort) over time
data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be repeatedly gathered throughout the length of the study.
advantages: detailed information about subjects, developmental changes tracked over time
disadvantages: expensive, time consuming, high attrition (ppl. leaving)
quantitative methods
ask "what" and "how much" numerical
methods: experiments, correlational studies
qualitative methods
ask "why" and "how"
methods: interviews, observations
frequency distribution
graphic representation showing the # of times the property takes on each of its possible values
normal curve (normal distribution)
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
measure of central tendency
points the researcher toward a centralized, repeated, or average number
drawback: a few extreme scores can distort the data.
mean, median, mode
experiment involves
manipulating independent variables
randomly assigning participants to groups
measuring dependent variables
1. manipulate a variable- identify independent variable (condition that is introduced to the experimental group). Control group does not get the IV.
2. measure the variable. did you see effect on some behavior or mental process? that is your dependent variable.
3. compare the control group to the control group to the experimental group
random sampling
everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected
random assignment
each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to the independent variable
inferential statistics
drawing conclusions about a sample population to make generalizations about whole population.
null hypothesis
no relationship between the variables → trying to prove wrong
statistical significance
when sample averages are reliable and difference between them is relatively large
proof beyond reasonable doubt
odds of its occurrence by chance are less than 5 percent. p (probability) <.05
ethics codes
Informed consent must be given, and participation must be voluntary.
Students may not be coerced into research participation.
Deception can be employed only under certain conditions.
Personal information about research participants must remain confidential.
Information about the study must be provided to participants, who should also be debriefed.
participants cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk. this clause requires interpretation by the IRB
nonhuman animals in research
about 7-8% of psychological research use animal
90% of the animals used have been rodents and birds, principally rats, mice, and pigeons. only about 5% of the animals are monkeys and other primates
why? humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys.
animal research may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery).
animal research is tightly regulated on a local, state and federal level
Note 
Flashcard (78)