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Agricultural Revolution
factor in causing the industrial revolution in Britian; the application of new agricultural techniques that allowed for a large increase in productivity in the eighteenth century; lowered food prices and increased population
Capital
material wealth used or available for use in the production of more wealth; Britain had much of this from trade profits and cottage industry to invest to start the industrial revolution
Industrial Revolution
shift from manual labor to machines in Europe; began first in Great Britain; first one lasted from about 1750-1848, emphasizing textiles, railroads, iron, and coal; second one lasted from 1870-1914, emphasizing steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum
Tariffs
taxes on imported goods; used often by European countries especially during the industrial revolution to encourage buying domestic products and increase the nation's income
Industrial Middle Class
part of the new middle class that was created during the industrial revolution; made up of industrial entrepreneurs; created a new business aristocracy
Trade Unions
associations of workers in the same trade formed during the industrial revolution; wanted to preserve their own workers' position by limiting entry into the trade and also gain benefits from employers
Chartisits
goal was to achieve political democracy (universal male suffrage); encouraged change through peaceful, constitutional means (ex: People's Charter); gave a sense of unity to the working class
Luddites
group of people who attacked the machines they believed threatened their livelihoods in order to protest
Principle of Legitimacy
guided Metternich at the Congress of Vienna; after the Napoleonic wars, peace could be best reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions
Balance of Power
a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another
Ideology
a political philosophy
Conservatism
an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change; main idea of the Concert of Europe
Principle of Intervention
idea that great powers have the right to send armies into countries where there are revolutions to restore legitimate governments; created at the Congress of Vienna
Nationalism
a sense of national consciousness based on awareness of being part of a community-a "nation"-that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs and that becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty
Burshenschaften
student societies in the German states dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany; empowered by nationalism and liberalism
Liberalism
an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible; Economic liberalism is the idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy; Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly.
Socialism
believed that the competitiveness of capitalism was the source of inequality and equality could only be achieved by equal distribution of goods and money provided by the government; became more popular after Karl Marx published the Communist Manifesto in 1848
Romanticism
a 19th century intellectual and artistic movement that rejected the emphasis on reason of the Enlightenment; stressed the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing.
Gothic Literature
a form of literature used by Romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories
Realpolitik
"politics of reality"; politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics; practiced heavily by Bismark
joint-stock investment bank
A bank created by selling shares of stock to investors; Such banks potentially have access to much more capital than private banks owned by one or a few individuals; important for industrialization due to the large supply of capital in one place
Proletariat
the industrial working class; in Marxism, the class that will ultimately overthrow the bourgeoisie
Materialism
the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal is an outgrowth of physical forces and that truth is found in concrete material existence, not through feeling or intuition
Natural Selection
Darwin's idea that organisms that are most adaptable to their environment survive and pass on the variations that allowed them to survive, while less adaptable organisms become extinct; "survival of the fittest"
Organic Evolution
Darwin's principle that all plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life
Realism
a 19th century school of painting that emphasized the everyday life of ordinary people, depicted with photographic accuracy
White-collar Jobs
job that does not involve manual labor; became more available with the expansion of government services and large businesses and even gave more job opportunities to women in the late 1800s
Marxism
the political, economic, and social theories of Karl Marx, which included the idea that history is the story of class struggle and that ultimately the proletariat will overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a dictatorship en route to a classless society
Mass Society
a society in which the concerns of the majority—the lower classes—play a prominent role; characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes, and mass education
Plutocrats
members of the wealthy elite; produced by big businesses during the industrial revolution; fused with the first class
Kulturkampf
"culture conflict"; name given to Bismark's attack on the Catholic Church in Germany due to doubts about their loyalty to the nation
Relativity Theory
Einstein's theory that, among other things, (1) space and time are not absolute but are relative to the observer and interwoven into a four-dimensional space-time continuum and (2) matter is a form of energy (E=mc^2);
Revolutionary Socialism
a socialist doctrine that violent action was the only way to achieve the goals of socialism
Social Darwinism
the application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order; led to the belief that progress comes from the struggle for survival as the fittest advance and the weak decline; used to justify racism
Volkish Thought
the belief that German culture is superior and that the German people have a universal mission to save Western civilization from inferior races
Modernism
the artistic and literary styles that emerged in the decades before 1914 as artists rebelled against traditional efforts to portray reality as accurately as possible (leading to Impressionism and Cubism) and writers explored new forms
Naturalism
continuation of Realism in the late 19th century, however had a more pessimistic perspective
Impressionism
an artistic movement that originated in France in the 1870s; sought to capture their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature
Cubism
an artistic style developed at the beginning of the twentieth century, especially by Pablo Picasso, that used geometric designs to re-create reality in the viewer's mind
Suffragists
advocates of extending the right to vote to women, especially in the lat 19th and early 20th centuries
anti-Semitism
hostility toward or discrimination against Jews
Pogroms
organized massacres of Jews
Zionism
an international movement that called for the establishment of a Jewish state or a refuge for Jews in Palestine
Ascendancy of Great Britain
became top dog in the late 18th to early 19th centuries due to having the resources to industrialize earlier (agricultural revolution, supply of capital, entrepreneurs, minerals, supportive government, high demand in markets); kept it a secret until 1851
Growth of worldwide trade
with lots of industrialization, countries needed raw materials, especially from colonies for their factories causing much trade; exports of cheap and refined goods were also widely demanded
Cotton (textile) industry
first industry to step toward industrializing in Great Britain with the creation of the modern factory
Great Exhibition of 1851
1851; first industrial fair organized by Great Britain as a display of their great wealth and imperial power; marks when the country officially opened its industrial secrets to the other European countries
Social Impact of Industrial Revolution
population growth due to increase in food supply; urbanization (cities were very unsanitary); creation of the Middle Class (two parts: industrial middle class and working class)
The Great Hunger
1845-1851; potato famine in Ireland; catastrophic population loss and many emigrate to America
Urban Living Conditions
very unsanitary during the Industrial Revolution; built around factories with the poor and industrial workers living in row houses in the middle; middle class lived in the cleaner suburbs
Congress of Vienna
1814-1815; meeting of European monarchs of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France to establish peace after the Napoleonic Wars; hosted and led by the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich; guided by the principle of legitimacy and conservatism
Concert of Europe
established in 1815; alliance between Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France); met periodically to discuss ways of continuing to keep the peace in Europe; guided by the principle of intervention, where countries were allowed to send in troops to help quell revolutions in other countries; kept the peace until the Crimean War in 1856
Latin American Independence Movement
1820-1824; series of revolutions led by Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin to liberate the South American colonies; Concert of Europe could not intervene due to Britain's opposition to it; South America still had European (especially British) economic dependence
Greek Revolt
1821-1830; successful revolt against the Ottomans and led to Greek independence; Concert of Europe intervened to support them
Corn Law
1815; tariff on imported grain to protect domestic producers, but led to extremely high prices for bread; left people unhappy
French Revolution of 1830
1830; second revolution of France and very short; people revolted because they were unhappy with Charles X's censorship and conservative policies; Charles X fled and was replaced by Louis-Philippe the "bourgeois monarch" who favored the upper bourgeoisie
Reform Act of 1832
1832; recognition of industrial change in Britain; gave the right to vote to the upper middle class; mostly benefited the upper middle class
Revolutions of 1848
series of political upheavals aroused from nationalism and liberalism; started in France with the third French Revolution with the abdication of Louis-Philippe and started the Second Republic; French revolution sparked revolutions in Germany, Austria, and Italy, but were both stopped by the Concert of Europe; political and nationalist divisions were also the reason why most of these revolutions did not succeed
Second French Republic
1848-1852; after removing Louis-Philippe France became a republic again, with Charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte being elected as leader; ended when he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon III
Second French Empire
1852-1871; led by Napoleon III; good domestic policy, but struggled in wars; ended after losing the Franco-Prussian War and signaled the end of France's dominance in Europe
Crimean War
1853-1856; Russian war against Ottomans after the Ottomans refused to stop oppressing Christians; Russian expected Austria to help, but they remained neutral, and Britain and France allied with the Ottomans so that Russia would not gain control of the Black Sea; Russia lost and the Concert of Europe was ended; last major war before WWI
Battle of Balaklava
1854; battle in the Crimean War; British Light Brigade was massacred
Unification of Italy
1861; chancellor Cavour unified northern Italy under king Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont; southern Italy was unified by Garibaldi then he gave the land over to Cavour; later added Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870)
Unification of Germany
1871; unified under Bismark; kicked Austrians out of German states during the Austro-Prussian War to make the North German Confederation; Southern German states were added after the Franco-Prussian War and the German Confederation unified with Prussia to form Germany; very authoritarian and militaristic; strongest power on the continent
Austro-Prussian War
1866; fought between Prussia and Austria; Bismark manipulated Austria into attacking first; Prussia won and Austria was excluded from German affairs
Franco-Prussian War
1870-1871; conflict between France and Prussia after a dispute over the throne of Spain; Prussia captured Paris and Napoleon III; Prussia united into Germany and became the strongest power on the continent and French was severely weakened and humiliated; new European balance of power
Ausgleich
1867; created a dual monarchy in Austria between the Austrians and Hungarians; Austria became Austria-Hungary; other minorities were dissatisfied and wanted power even more
Victorian Age
1837-1901; reign of Queen Victoria; time of peace and stability with reforms and prosperity
American Civil War
1861-1865; war between Northern and Southern states over the issue of slave-based economy; North wins due to industrial advantages and country reunites
Communist Manifesto
1848 (inspired revolutions); written by Karl Marx; believed history is the history of class struggle and problems could be solved with a classless society when workers overthrew their bourgeoisie masters
On the Origin of Species
1859; written by Charles Darwin; all plants and animals evolved from earlier, simpler forms through adaptation ("survival of the fittest")
The Descent of Man
1871; written by Charles Darwin; stated that man has animal origins; at first controversial but later gradual acceptance; Europeans used this to justify racism through Social Darwinism
Second Industrial Revolution
1870-1914; produced steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum; creation of automobile and airplane; German industrial leadership, then American; continued industrial core in northern and western Europe; Europe dominates world economy
Third French Republic
1871-1940; fragile and divided over republic vs monarchy; separation of church and state; rise of antisemitism (ex: Dreyfus Affair)
Dreyfus Affair
Jewish captain was falsely accused and convicted of selling secrets but was later found to be innocent; government refused a new trial even though a Catholic officer was more obviously the culprit; led to Zionist movement; also led to French government becoming more radical and separating church and state
1905 Revolution
1905; civil unrest that followed the failed Russo-Japanese War and the massacre of Bloody Sunday; forced Nicholas to create a Duma (parliament); however it was ineffective and power still remained in the hands of the tsar
New Imperialism
1870-1914; revived interest in spreading European influence and power for the sake of getting more resources for factories; also influenced by social Darwinism and racism; occupied Africa and Asia
"White Man's Burden"
idea that Europeans should "civilize" non European countries inspired by Social Darwinism
Scramble for Africa
1880-1914; countries of Europe quickly colonized Africa for its resources; France and Britain had most land; although there were some technological benefits the colonized people were not treated well and resented foreigners for exploitation
Boer War
(1899-1902) War between Great Britain and the Boers in South Africa over control of rich mining country; Great Britain won and created the Union of South Africa comprised of all the South African colonies
Balkan Crises
1912-1914; series of conflicts in the Balkan countries which would spark WWI; tensions between Austria and Serbia after Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina; Russia promises to support Serbia
James Watt
Invented the steam engine and revolutionized the production of cotton goods
Prince Clemens von Metternich
Austrian foreign minister who hosted and led the Congress of Vienna
Simon Bolivar
The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America; led to the continent being liberated
Jose de San Martin
Led revolts for Argentina and worked with Bolivar to free Peru from Spanish rule
Tories
British political party who supported the Industrial Revolution
Louis XVIII
French Bourbon monarch who was restored to the throne by the Concert of Europe
Charles X
Bourbon successor of Louis XVIII who made restrictions to become an absolute monarch with the July Ordinances; was overthrown in the second French revolution of 1830
Ferdinand VII
Bourbon king of Spain restored to the throne by the Concert of Europe; at first promised a constitution, but decided to ignore it; revolt stopped by the Concert of Europe
Nicholas I
greatly feared revolution in Russia and was therefore very authoritarian and conservative
John Stuart Mill
English advocate for political liberalism and even advocated for women's rights
Louis-Philippe
"Bourgeoisie King" of France who favored measures that benefited the middle class; overthrown during the third French Revolution of 1848
Federalists
Supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption (ex:Hamilton, Adams, Marshall)
Democratic-Republicans
An early political party headed by Thomas Jefferson; stood for less centralized government (ex: Jefferson, Madison)
Andrew Jackson
opened up an era of mass democracy in American politics
Beethoven
Romantic musician
Emperor Napoleon III
elected president of France in 1848, crowned himself emperor in 1852; had an authoritarian rule but French loved him; hardly won any wars
Camillo de Cavour
Prime Minister of Piedmont who led the movement for northern Italian unification under king Victor Emmanuel II
Victor Emmanuel II
king of Piedmont, then first king of Italy in 1861
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Italian patriot who conquered Sicily and Naples (southern Italy), then gave the land over to Cavour to unify Italy
