SOC 202 Final Exam Key Terms

individualistic explanation

Tendency to attribute people’s achievements and failures to their personal qualities

macrolevel

Way of examining human life that focuses on the broad social forces and structural features of society that exist above the level of individual people

microlevel

Way of examining human life that focuses on the immediate, everyday experiences of individuals

sociological imagination

Ability to see the impact of social forces on our private lives

sociology

The systematic study of human societies

achieved status

Social position acquired through our own efforts or accomplishments or taken on voluntarily

ascribed status

Social position acquired at birth or taken on involuntarily later in life

conflict perspective

Theoretical perspective that views the structure of society as a source of inequality that always benefits some groups at the expense of other groups

culture

Language, values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a society

feminist perspective

Theoretical perspective that focuses on gender as the most important source of conflict and inequality in social life

globalization

Process through which people’s lives all around the world become economically, politically, environmentally, and culturally interconnected

group

Set of people who interact more or less regularly and who are conscious of their identity as a unit

in-groups

The groups to which we belong and toward which we feel a sense of loyalty

latent function

Unintended, unrecognized consequences of activities that help some part of the social system

manifest functions

Intended, obvious consequences of activities designed to help some part of the social system

norm

Culturally defined standard or rule of conduct

organization

Large, complex network of positions created for a specific purpose and characterized by a hierarchical division of labor

out-groups

The groups to which we don’t belong and toward which we feel a certain amount of antagonism

primary group

Collection of individuals who are together for a relatively long period, whose members have direct contact with and feel emotional attachment to one another

role

Set of expectations—rights, obligations, behaviors, duties—associated with a particular status

role conflict

Frustration people feel when the demands of one role they are expected to fulfill clash with the demands of another role

role strain

Situations in which people lack the necessary resources to fulfill the demands of a particular role

secondary group

Relatively impersonal collection of individuals that is established to perform a specific task

social institution

Stable set of roles, statuses, groups, and organizations—such as the institution of education, family, politics, religion, health care, or the economy—that provides a foundation for behavior in some major area of social life

society

A population of people living in the same geographic area who share a culture and a common identity and whose members are subject to the same political authority

status

Any named social position that people can occupy

structural-functionalist perspective

Theoretical perspective that posits that social institutions are structured to maintain stability and order in society

symbol

Something used to represent or stand for something else

symbolic interactionism

Theoretical perspective that explains society and social structure through an examination of the microlevel, personal, day-to-day exchanges of people as individuals, pairs, or groups

value

Standard of judgment by which people decide on desirable goals and outcomes

analysis of existing data

Type of unobtrusive research that relies on data gathered earlier by someone else for some other purpose

content analysis

Form of unobtrusive research that studies the content of recorded messages, such as books, speeches, poems, songs, television shows, websites, and advertisements

dependent variable

Variable that is assumed to be caused by, or to change as a result of, the independent variable

empirical research

Research that operates from the ideological position that questions about human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real world

experiment

Research method designed to elicit some sort of behavior, typically conducted under closely controlled laboratory circumstances

field research

Type of social research in which the researcher observes events as they actually occur

historical analysis

Form of social research that relies on existing historical documents as a source of data

hypothesis

Researchable prediction that specifies the relationship between two or more variables

incorrigible proposition

Unquestioned cultural belief that cannot be proved wrong no matter what happens to dispute it

independent variable

Variable presumed to cause or influence the dependent variable

indicator

Measurable event, characteristic, or behavior commonly thought to reflect a particular concept

nonparticipant observation

Form of field research in which the researcher observes people without directly interacting with them and without letting them know that they are being observed

participant observation

Form of field research in which the researcher interacts with subjects, sometimes hiding his or her identity

probabilistic

Capable only of identifying those forces that have a high likelihood, but not a certainty, of influencing human action

qualitative research

Sociological research based on nonnumeric information (text, written words, phrases, symbols, observations) that describes people, actions, or events in social life

reactivity

A problem associated with certain forms of research in which the very act of intruding into people’s lives may influence the phenomenon being studied

representative

Typical of the whole population being studied

sample

Subgroup chosen for a study because its characteristics approximate those of the entire population

self-fulfilling prophecy

Assumption or prediction that in itself causes the expected event to occur, thus seeming to confirm the prophecy’s accuracy

social construction of reality

Process through which the members of a society discover, make known, reaffirm, and alter a collective version of facts, knowledge, and “truth”

spurious relationship

A false association between two variables that is actually due to the effect of some third variable

survey

Form of social research in which the researcher asks subjects a series of questions verbally, online, or on paper

theory

Set of statements or propositions that seeks to explain or predict a particular aspect of social life

unobtrusive research

Research technique in which the researcher, without direct contact with the subjects, examines the evidence of social behavior that people create or leave behind

cultural relativism

Principle that people’s beliefs and activities should be interpreted in terms of their own culture

ethnocentrism

Tendency to judge other cultures using one’s own as a standard

folkway

Informal norm that is mildly punished when violated

heteronormative culture

Culture in which heterosexuality is accepted as the normal, taken-for-granted mode of sexual expression

institutionalized norm

Pattern of behavior within existing social institutions that is widely accepted in a society

intersex

Category of individuals in whom sexual differentiation is either incomplete or ambiguous (also known as people with disorders of sex development)

material culture

Artifacts of a society that represent adaptations to the social and physical environment

mores

Highly codified, formal, systematized norms that bring severe punishment when violated

nonmaterial culture

Knowledge, beliefs, customs, values, morals, and symbols that are shared by members of a society and that distinguish the society from others

sanction

Social response that punishes or otherwise discourages violations of a social norm

sexual dichotomy

Belief that two biological sex categories, male and female, are permanent, universal, exhaustive, and mutually exclusive

sick role

Set of norms governing how one is supposed to behave and what one is entitled to when sick

subculture

Values, behaviors, and artifacts of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture

agents of socialization

Various individuals, groups, and organizations that influence the socialization process

anticipatory socialization

Process through which people acquire the values and orientations found in statuses they will likely enter in the future

collectivist culture

Culture in which personal accomplishments are less important in the formation of identity than group membership

game stage

Stage in the development of self during which a child acquires the ability to take the role of a group or community (the generalized other) and conform their behavior to broad societal expectations

gender

Psychological, social, and cultural aspects of masculinity and femininity

generalized other

Perspective of the larger society and its constituent values and attitudes

individualist culture

Culture in which personal accomplishments are a more important component of one’s self-concept than group membership

looking-glass self

Sense of who we are that is defined by incorporating the reflected appraisals of others

play stage

Stage in the development of self during which a child develops the ability to take a role, but only from the perspective of one person at a time

reflexive behavior

Behavior in which the person initiating an action is the same as the person toward whom the action is directed

resocialization

Process of learning new values, norms, and expectations when an adult leaves an old role and enters a new one

role taking

Ability to see oneself from the perspective of others and to use that perspective in formulating one’s own behavior

self

Unique set of traits, behaviors, and attitudes that distinguishes one person from the next; the active source and passive object of behavior

sex

Biological maleness or femaleness

socialization

Process through which one learns how to act according to the rules and expectations of a particular culture

total institution

Place where individuals are cut off from the wider society for an appreciable period and where together they lead an enclosed, formally administered life

tracking

Grouping of students into different curricular programs, or tracks, based on an assessment of their academic abilities

back stage

Area of social interaction away from the view of an audience, where people can rehearse and rehash their behavior

dramaturgy

Study of social interaction as theater, in which people (“actors”) project images (“play roles”) in front of others (“audience”)

front stage

Area of social interaction where people perform and work to maintain appropriate impressions

impression formation

The process by which we define others based on observable cues such as age, ascribed status characteristics such as race and gender, individual attributes such as physical appearance, and verbal and nonverbal expressions

impression management

Act of presenting a favorable public image of oneself so that others will form positive judgments

stigma

Deeply discrediting characteristic that is viewed as an obstacle to competent or morally trustworthy behavior

endogamy

Marriage/intimate relations within one’s social group

exogamy

Marriage/intimate relations outside one’s social group

extended family

Family unit consisting of the parent–child nuclear family and other relatives, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins

family

Two or more persons, including the householder, who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption and who live together as one household

household

Living arrangement composed of one or more people who occupy a housing unit

neolocal residence

Living arrangement in which a married couple sets up residence separate from either spouse’s family

nuclear family

Family unit consisting of at least one parent and one child

absolutism

Approach to defining deviance that rests on the assumption that all human behavior can be considered either inherently good or inherently bad

criminalization

Official definition of an act of deviance as a crime

deterrence theory

Theory of deviance positing that people will be prevented from engaging in a deviant act if they judge the costs of such an act to outweigh its benefits