Psychopathology: Stress, Anxiety, Mood, and Eating Disorders Overview

What factors increase stress sensitivity in individuals?

Higher levels of optimism, greater psychological control, increased self-esteem, and better social support.

What is the psychological domain's role in stress sensitivity?

It plays the largest role in determining stress sensitivity and the magnitude of the stress response.

How can early life stressors affect later stress responses?

They may sensitize individuals to stress later on, creating a self-perpetuating cycle.

What are the key characteristics that make a stressor more serious?

Severity, chronicity, timing, personal relevance, expectation, and controllability.

What is the biological cost of adapting to stress called?

Allostatic load.

What is the role of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis in stress?

It leads to the secretion of cortisol, which elevates blood sugar and increases metabolism.

What are the first systems to respond to stress?

The Sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system activates the fight-or-flight response.

What hormone does the adrenal medulla secrete during stress?

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

What triggers the HPA system in response to stress?

The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).

What hormone does the pituitary gland secrete in response to CRH?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

What is the stress glucocorticoid produced in humans?

Cortisol.

How does stress affect immune functioning?

It compromises immune functioning and can lead to stress-induced immunosuppression.

What are cytokines?

Small protein molecules that allow immune cells to communicate and mediate the inflammatory response.

What are the two categories of cytokines?

Proinflammatory (boost immune response) and anti-inflammatory (decrease immune response).

What happens to the body under chronic stress?

It can lead to chronic inflammation and a poor anti-inflammatory response.

What is necessary for the immune system to re-regulate itself?

Reduced inflammation and less stress to regulate the HPA Axis.

What physical systems respond to harmful emotions?

The Sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system and the Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system.

How do negative emotions affect health?

They can influence the brain and immune system, leading to health imbalances.

What is the impact of social support on stress?

Lack of social support can amplify stress responses.

What is the relationship between stressors and individual perception?

Individual perception of stressors can significantly affect stress tolerance and response.

How does psychological mastery influence stress management?

Greater psychological mastery improves the ability to handle stress.

What role does self-esteem play in stress sensitivity?

Higher self-esteem is associated with improved ability to cope with stress.

What happens to the immune system when glucocorticoids are elevated?

Elevated glucocorticoids can lead to stress-induced immunosuppression.

What is the effect of chronic stress on cytokine production?

Chronic stress can prevent the body from turning off cytokine production.

What psychological factors are involved in Behavioral Medicine?

Psychological factors that may predispose individuals to medical problems.

What is the relationship between stress and physical illness?

Stress underlies nearly all physical illness.

How does stress affect the immune system?

Stress activates the immune system, triggering the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor.

What is the relationship between depression and stress?

Depression interacts with stress, enhancing the inflammatory responses triggered by stress exposure.

What cardiovascular risks are associated with proinflammatory cytokines?

Proinflammatory cytokines can trigger the growth of plaques in blood vessels, increasing the likelihood of rupture and heart attacks.

What percentage more likely are lonely women to develop heart disease?

Women who reported higher levels of loneliness were 76% more likely to develop heart disease over time.

What role do helpful emotions play in mental health?

Helpful emotions, such as forgiveness, act as a buffer against the effects of stress on mental health.

How does cognitive control affect cytokine production in response to stress?

People with better cognitive control have a less pronounced increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine production in response to stress.

What is the impact of harmful emotions on individuals with Type D personality?

Individuals with Type D personality are more likely to experience negative emotions and feel insecure, leading to a higher risk of heart attacks.

What is the relationship between depression and heart attack outcomes?

Heart attack patients with high levels of depressive symptoms are three times more likely to die within five years than those without high depressive symptoms.

What psychological interventions can reduce stress?

Interventions include emotional disclosure (expressive writing), biofeedback, relaxation and meditation, and cognitive-behavioral therapy.

How does expressive writing benefit patients?

Expressive writing about emotions or traumatic events can lead to faster wound healing and reduced fatigue in autoimmune disease patients.

What are the benefits of relaxation techniques?

Relaxation techniques can help reduce blood pressure and alleviate tension headaches.

What is the role of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) in mental health?

CBT helps alleviate depression and improves physical, social, and psychological functioning.

What are the key features of PTSD?

PTSD includes trauma memory re-experienced involuntarily, symptoms lasting at least one month, and avoidance of trauma reminders.

What experiences can lead to PTSD?

Causes of PTSD include combat, rape, concentration camps, natural disasters, and car crashes.

What are the symptoms required for a PTSD diagnosis?

Symptoms include intrusion (re-experiencing), avoidance (avoiding reminders), negative alterations in mood, and heightened arousal and reactivity.

What differentiates adjustment disorder from PTSD?

Adjustment disorder symptoms disappear when the stressor ends or the person adapts, while PTSD symptoms persist beyond one month.

What is the time frame for diagnosing acute stress disorder?

Acute stress disorder symptoms must begin within three months of the stressor.

What is the nature of the stressor in adjustment disorder?

The stressor in adjustment disorder is commonly experienced and leads to less severe psychological reactions compared to PTSD.

What is the significance of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)?

MBSR provides psychological benefits such as reducing depression and anxiety, and improving cognitive flexibility.

How does MBSR affect brain connectivity?

MBSR may improve connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, leading to better emotional regulation.

What is the impact of SSRIs on heart attack patients?

Patients treated with SSRIs are less likely to die or have another heart attack compared to those not taking antidepressants.

What is the relationship between aging and health problems?

As people age, they are more likely to experience serious health problems, including those exacerbated by emotional stress.

What is the lifetime prevalence of PTSD in women compared to men?

9.7% in women and 3.6% in men.

Which demographic has higher rates of exposure to traumatic events?

Black Americans have higher rates of exposure compared to white Americans.

What factors can influence the development of PTSD after exposure to trauma?

The nature of the traumatic stressor and how directly it was experienced.

What are some risk factors for being exposed to trauma?

Being male, having less than a college education, childhood conduct problems, family history of psychiatric disorders, and high scores on extraversion and neuroticism.

How does preexisting mental health affect the risk of developing PTSD?

Having preexisting problems with depression and anxiety increases the risk of developing PTSD.

What role does social support play in PTSD risk?

Low social support is a risk factor for developing PTSD.

What is the significance of genetic predisposition in PTSD?

Genetic predisposition to mood disorders may increase susceptibility to PTSD symptoms.

What is meant by PTSD being polygenic?

PTSD is influenced by thousands of genetic variants, each with small effects.

What are common treatment approaches for PTSD?

Crisis intervention, psychological debriefing, medication (antidepressants, antipsychotics), and cognitive-behavioral treatments.

What is stress-inoculation training?

A method that prepares individuals to tolerate anticipated threats by changing their self-talk.

How do fear and anxiety differ in psychological terms?

Fear is an immediate response to imminent danger; anxiety is a more diffuse blend of emotions related to future threats.

What physiological responses are associated with fear?

Activation of the fight-or-flight response, increased heart rate, and sweating.

What are the cognitive components of anxiety?

Negative mood, worry about future threats, and a sense of unpredictability.

What are the essential features of anxiety disorders?

Unrealistic, irrational fears or anxieties causing significant distress or impairment in functioning.

What role does neuroticism play in anxiety disorders?

Neuroticism is a common risk factor for both anxiety and mood disorders.

What defines specific phobias?

An intense and irrational fear of specific objects or situations leading to avoidance behavior.

What are the diagnostic criteria for specific phobias?

Fear or panic response when encountering the phobic object, avoidance behavior, fear out of proportion to actual danger, persistence for 6 months or more.

What is the relationship between PTSD and depression?

PTSD and depression are highly comorbid and often co-occur.

What is the impact of a negative social environment on PTSD risk?

A negative, unsupportive social environment increases the risk of PTSD.

What is the role of community stress in PTSD prevalence?

Community stress can contribute to the prevalence of PTSD, particularly among those with lower socioeconomic status.

How does the fight-or-flight response manifest in anxiety?

Anxiety creates tension and chronic overarousal without the immediate urge to flee.

What are common behavioral responses to anxiety?

A strong tendency to avoid situations where danger might be encountered.

What is the significance of multigenerational trauma in PTSD?

Family history and multigenerational trauma can increase the risk of PTSD.

What is the effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on PTSD?

Lower SES can be linked to higher rates of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and increased PTSD risk.

What is the purpose of telephone hotlines in PTSD treatment?

To provide immediate help for individuals under severe stress or suicidal thoughts.

What is the role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating PTSD?

CBT techniques like prolonged exposure help individuals process trauma and reduce symptoms.

What is a cardinal characteristic of phobias?

Avoidance, due to the unpleasant phobic response and irrational appraisal of threat.

What defines social anxiety disorder?

Disabling fears of one or more social situations, often due to fear of negative evaluation or embarrassment.

What are common experiences in social anxiety?

Marked fear of social situations, fear of negative evaluation, avoidance of situations, and significant distress.

What is required for a diagnosis of social anxiety disorder?

Fear of scrutiny in social situations, avoidance or enduring situations with anxiety, and clinically significant distress.

What triggers panic disorder?

Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks leading to anxiety about future attacks and possible agoraphobia.

What experiences are required for a panic disorder diagnosis?

Frequent panic attacks and intense anxiety about having another attack.

What biological factors are associated with panic disorder?

Biochemical abnormalities in the brain, particularly involving norepinephrine and serotonin.

What cognitive theory explains panic disorder?

People may misinterpret bodily sensations catastrophically, leading to panic.

What is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?

Chronic and excessive worry about various events, accompanied by psychic and muscle tension.

What experiences are necessary for a GAD diagnosis?

Generalized anxiety and worry about many potential threats, with possible occasional panic attacks.

What neurobiological factor is implicated in GAD?

A functional deficiency in the neurotransmitter GABA.

What characterizes obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

Unwanted intrusive thoughts or images accompanied by compulsive behaviors to neutralize them.

What are common rituals in OCD?

Checking and cleaning rituals.

What treatments are effective for OCD?

Behavior therapies involving exposure and prevention of rituals following exposure.

What cultural differences exist in sources of worry?

Individualistic cultures may worry about personal achievements, while collectivistic cultures may focus on family and social harmony.

How do cultural values influence common worries?

Cultures shape the interpretation of distress symptoms, leading to different forms of anxiety disorders.

What is the relationship between technology and worries in cultures?

A culture's level of technologization may influence the nature of common worries among its people.

What is the prevalence of mood disorders?

Mood disorders are among the most common mental health conditions, affecting millions worldwide.

What are the primary symptoms of mood disorders?

Symptoms include persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in appetite, and suicidal thoughts.

What is the difference between major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder?

Major depressive disorder involves severe symptoms for a shorter duration, while persistent depressive disorder is a chronic form of depression lasting for at least two years.

What is bipolar disorder?

A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania.

What are the symptoms of mania?

Increased energy, decreased need for sleep, grandiosity, and impulsive behavior.

What factors contribute to the development of mood disorders?

Genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors all play a role.

What role do neurotransmitters play in mood disorders?

Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine are linked to mood disorders.

What is the significance of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating mood disorders?

It helps patients identify and change negative thought patterns that contribute to their mood disorders.

What is the impact of stress on mood disorders?

Stressful life events can trigger or exacerbate mood disorders.