Child Development Final

Phonology

The sound system of a particular language

Semantics

the part of language concerned with the meanings of words and parts of words.

Syntax

the part of language concerned with the rules which govern how words can be combined to make sentences

Pragmatics

the part of language concerned with its use in social contexts

Phoneme

the smallest units of sound in a language

Discriminate

in speech-sound perception, to be able to tell the difference between speech sounds of a language.

Category

a set of sounds or words perceived as belonging to the same group

Semantically related

words which have something in common in terms of their meaning.

Shaping

a process by which children’s utterances move closer to correct speech as the result of positive reinforcement, which leads to a series of successive approximations.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

a hypothetical cognitive structure predisposed towards the acquisition of language and sensitive to rule-based regularities in everyday speech, therefore allowing for the development of grammar and syntax.

Lateralisation

the principle that some specific psychological functions are located in one or the other side of the brain’s two cortical hemispheres.

Critical period hypothesis

the suggestion that there is a specific period of time in the early part of a child’s life (suggestions about when this begins and ends vary), during which language learning should occur in order to develop normally.

Plasticity

the ability of the brain to reorganise neural pathways either to recover lost functioning due to damage, or in response to learning from new experiences

False belief

the wrongly held belief that something is true.

Implicit Knowledge

knowledge that comes from an understanding of what is meant or suggested even when it has not been directly stated.

Explicit Knowledge

knowledge that has been stated clearly and in detail, and where there is no room for misunderstanding, confusion or doubt.

Referential words

common nouns used to denote real objects (12–15 months)

Vocabulary Spurt

a point in language development where the acquisition rate of new words is thought to accelerate rapidly.

Reflexive vocalisation

Crying, burping, coughing, sneezing (0–6/8 weeks)

Interactive sound making

Cooing, laughing (6–19 weeks)

Vocal play

Deliberate exploration of sounds (18–30/35 weeks)

Canonical babbling

Sounds & sound combinations which begin to sound like words (35 weeks–1 year)

Complex/Modulated Babbling

Interactive use of babbling; exploration of stress, intonation, etc. (10-15 months)

Naming insight

the realisation that all things have names, leading to a fundamental change in the way children think about the world.

Holophrase

a single word spoken by babies meant to express a more complex idea (eg. ‘up!’, ‘milk!‘)

Telegraphic speech

speech consisting of phrases of a small number of words (usually nouns, verbs and adjectives) combined to make sense, but without complex grammatical forms.

Speech Act Theory (John Austin, 1975)

the theory that asserts language is used not just to convey information but also to perform actions, emphasizing the context and intention behind spoken words

Locutionary Act (Speech Act Theory)

The act of saying a sentence that makes sense and refers to something,

Illocutionary Act (Speech Act Theory)

The speaker’s purpose in saying a sentence

Perlocutionary Act (Speech Act Theory)

The effect of a sentence on a listener

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget, 1974)

A theory that explains how individuals acquire, construct, and use knowledge throughout their life stages. Asserts that young children are egocentric and unable to take their listeners’ perspectives.

Egocentrism

A cognitive bias where individuals are unable to recognise or understand perspectives other than their own, typically prominent in children before age 7.

Linguistic Nativism (Chomsky)

The theory that the ability to acquire language is innate and genetically programmed into humans, suggesting that children are born with a biological capacity to develop language.

Usage-Based Theories (Tomasello)

Theories that argue language acquisition is driven by social interaction and is learned through usage in context rather than being innately programmed.

Tabula Rasa or Blank Slate Theory (Locke)

The theory that human beings are born without any innate mental content and that all knowledge comes from experience and perception, emphasising the role of the environment in shaping behaviour and understanding.

Whole-Object Assumption

A principle that infants assume that words refer to whole objects rather than their parts or properties, facilitating language learning.

Mutual-Exclusivity Assumption

The principle that infants assume that each label refers to a distinct object, preventing them from assigning multiple labels to the same object and aiding vocabulary acquisition.

Verb Island Hypothesis

A theory suggesting that children learn verbs in isolation rather than as part of broader grammatical structures, leading to gaps in their understanding of sentence formation.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that differ from one's own, crucial for social interaction and communication.

Executive functions (EF)

The aspects of memory, control and flexibility are needed for planning and considering the consequences of actions. Components include: inhibitory control, mental set switching/cognitive flexibility, & working memory.

inhibitory control

the ability to suppress impulsive responses and behaviours, allowing for better self-regulation.

mental set switching/cognitive flexibility

the capacity to adapt one's thinking and behavior in response to changing situations or demands, which is essential for problem-solving and effective decision-making.

working memory

the ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind over short periods, crucial for reasoning and guiding decision-making (~7±2)

Holistic Face Processing

the cognitive ability to perceive and interpret faces as a whole, rather than focusing on individual features, facilitating recognition and emotional understanding.

Configural Face Processing

the cognitive ability to recognize facial features in relation to one another, allowing for interpretation of facial expressions and identity, which is important for social interactions.

Featural Face Processing

the cognitive ability to analyze and identify individual features of faces, such as the eyes or mouth, rather than perceiving them as a unified whole.

Global Level of Face Processing

A cognitive approach to face recognition that emphasizes the importance of processing the overall configuration and relationships among facial features, rather than focusing solely on individual features.

Basic Level of Face Processing

A cognitive approach that emphasizes the recognition of faces using a moderate level of detail, integrating both individual features and their configurations.

Subordinate Level of Face Processing

A cognitive approach to face recognition that focuses on identifying specific individuals, often using detailed information about facial features and configurations to distinguish between similar faces.

Individual Level of Face Processing

A cognitive approach to face recognition that emphasizes the identification of unique facial characteristics and nuanced details that distinguish one person from another.

Face Processing

The system used for recognising individuals, primarily via their visual system using faces, especially important for social species like humans and nonhuman primates

Dynamic Facial Cues

Facial movements and expressions that convey emotion and intent, crucial for social communication and face recognition.

Transient Facial Cues

Temporary changes in facial features, such as brief expressions or movements, that indicate emotional reactions or social signals, playing a key role in interpersonal communication.

Inversion Effect

A visual effect where faces are recognised more accurately and faster when presented in their normal upright orientation compared to when presented upside-down

Tanaka-Farah Effect

A phenomenon in face recognition where participants are better at recognizing faces when they are shown in their original contexts rather than in isolation.

Own-Race Effect/Other-Race Effect

The tendency for individuals to recognize and identify faces of their own race more accurately than those of other races, impacting social interactions and perceptions.

Perceptual Narrowing

A developmental process in which infants become less responsive to stimuli from outside their own familiar perceptual categories, enhancing recognition of faces from their own environment.

Gross motor skills (physical movement)

Abilities that involve large muscle groups and include actions such as crawling, walking, running, and jumping.

Fine motor skills and eye–hand coordination

Smaller muscle movements, particularly those of the hands and fingers, allowing for tasks like writing, buttoning, and using small tools.

Communication skills

The abilities to convey and understand information through verbal and nonverbal methods, including speaking, listening, and gestures.

Personal and self-help skills

Skills related to daily living tasks, such as dressing, eating, and personal hygiene, enabling individuals to care for themselves independently.

Social interaction

The ability to engage and communicate effectively with others, establishing relationships and fostering cooperation in various settings.

Cognitive skills

The mental abilities used in the process of acquiring knowledge, including thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Assessment

the process of collecting information on children, typically through observations, tests, clinician/teacher rating scales, etc., in order to make inferences about their development, typically within a school or clinical context.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) (William Stern, 1912)

A score derived from one of several different standardised tests designed to measure ability over a range of different cognitive tasks

Learning Disability

a condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind, which is especially characterised by impairment of skills manifested during the developmental period, which contribute to the overall level of intelligence

Developmental Delay

A term used to describe a significant lag in a child's physical, cognitive, behavioral, or emotional development compared to peers, often requiring special services or interventions.

Developmental Disorder

A group of conditions that result in impairment in various areas of development, including communication, social skills, and motor skills, affecting a child's everyday functioning.

Dyslexia

A specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills, often characterized by difficulties in phonemic awareness, phonology, and decoding.

Dyscalculia

A specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand numbers and learn math facts, often leading to difficulties in performing calculations and understanding numerical concepts.

Dysgraphia

A specific learning disability that affects writing abilities, often characterised by difficulties with handwriting, spelling, and organising thoughts on paper.

Dyspraxia (sensory integration disorder)

A developmental coordination disorder that affects physical coordination, leading to difficulties in planning and executing motor tasks, often impacting daily activities and academic performance.

Auditory processing disorder

A condition that affects how the brain processes auditory information, leading to difficulties in understanding spoken language and distinguishing similar sounds.

Visual processing disorder

A condition that affects the way the brain interprets visual information, leading to difficulties with tasks that involve visual perception, such as reading and interpreting images.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors, which can vary significantly in severity and symptoms.

Rett Syndrome

A rare genetic neurodevelopmental disorder that primarily affects girls, leading to severe cognitive and physical impairments, including loss of purposeful hand skills and development of repetitive hand movements.

Prader-Willi Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by the loss of function of specific genes on chromosome 15, characterised by features such as insatiable appetite, low muscle tone, and developmental delays. This condition may lead to obesity and related health issues if not managed properly.

Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

A genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra chromosome 21, resulting in developmental and intellectual delays, distinctive facial features, and an increased risk of certain medical issues.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A genetic condition affecting males, characterised by the presence of one or more extra X chromosomes, leading to physical, developmental, and reproductive challenges, including infertility and learning disabilities.

Angelman Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a loss of function of the UBE3A gene on chromosome 15, characterised by severe developmental delays, speech impairments, movement and balance issues, and often a happy demeanour with frequent laughter.

Neurofibromatosis

A genetic disorder that causes tumours to grow on nerves. There are three types, with symptoms including skin changes, bone deformities, and an increased risk of other tumours

Turner Syndrome

A genetic condition affecting females, characterised by a partial or complete absence of one X chromosome, leading to short stature, delayed puberty, heart defects, and infertility.

Williams Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a deletion of several genes on chromosome 7, characterised by distinctive facial features, cardiovascular disease, and a friendly, outgoing personality.

Dysfluency

an abnormal degree of hesitation or stumbling over words, making speech difficult to understand. Stammering (or stuttering) is the most common form of dysfluency. The speech of dysfluent people may be hard to understand; it may seem jerky or disjointed, and it does not flow easily from one word to the next.

Pragmatic Language

The use of language in social contexts encompasses the ability to use language appropriately in different situations, including understanding implied meanings and adhering to conversational norms.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development. It affects both children and adults.

Content-Based Theories of Media

theories suggesting that the influence of screen media on a child's development mainly depends on the content presented

Content-Independent Theories of Media

theories suggesting that the influence of screen media takes place irrespective of content, for example, by displacing other beneficial activities

Form-Based Theories of Media

theories that concentrate on specific features of screen media, such as pace, visual effects, or auditory effects, which may impact cognition or behaviour

Social-Based Theories of Media

theories highlighting the importance of the parental role and mediation in children’s relationship with screen-based media

Prosocial media content

Content intended to contribute to socioemotional learning by modelling behaviours like honesty, helping, generosity, or aggression reduction

Video Deficit Effect

The phenomenon where very young children have difficulty learning from content presented on 2D screens and comprehending the relationship between what they see on a screen and reality

Time-Displacement Theory

A content-independent theory suggesting that screen media use can displace other beneficial activities like reading or social interactions, negatively influencing intellectual development

Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)

a theory that explains gender identity development by the child’s developing cognitive skills in three stages, which underpin critical milestones in understanding about gender as gender labelling, gender stability and gender constancy.

Gender Labelling

The initial stage in the cognitive-developmental theory, where children begin to identify and label their own gender and that of others, typically occurring around age two to three.

Gender Stability

The second stage in the cognitive-developmental theory, where children understand that gender remains consistent over time, typically emerging around ages four to five.

Gender Constancy

The final stage in the cognitive-developmental theory, where children realize that gender is invariant across situations and cannot change, usually developing around ages six to seven.

Accepted children

children who are popular,­ accepted or well liked by the majority of other children in the peer group.

Rejected children

children who are unpopular, avoided as a playmate, least liked, or disliked by others in the peer group.

Neglected children

children who are neither accepted nor rejected, or not strongly liked or disliked, by their peer group.