Bio exam: anatomy and physiology

Direction of gas movement

Gases move from high partial pressure to low partial pressure

Path of oxygen

Nose or mouth to trachea to bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli to capillaries (blood) to tissues

Path of carbon dioxide

Tissues to capillaries to alveoli to bronchioles to bronchi to trachea to nose or mouth

Respiration in fish

Gills with one way water flow and countercurrent exchange

Respiration in birds

Air sacs with one way airflow

Respiration in mammals

Tidal breathing air moves in and out same pathway

Role of oxygen in metabolism

Oxygen is required for cellular metabolism

Product of metabolism

Carbon dioxide is produced

Hemoglobin at high oxygen partial pressure

Binds oxygen in lungs

Hemoglobin at low oxygen partial pressure

Releases oxygen in tissues

Arteries function

Carry blood away from heart

Veins function

Carry blood toward heart

Capillaries function

Site of gas exchange through diffusion

Path of blood flow

Heart to pulmonary arteries to lungs to pulmonary veins to heart to aorta to body to veins to heart

Gas exchange vessels

Capillaries

ADH

Increases water reabsorption and regulates blood volume

Heart complexity and metabolism

Higher metabolism leads to more complex hearts

Major macromolecules in diet

Carbohydrates proteins lipids

Essential amino acids

Amino acids that must be obtained from diet

Vitamins

Organic molecules needed in small amounts

Steps of digestion

Ingestion digestion absorption elimination

1) Mouth function

Chewing and saliva begin digestion

2) Esophagus function

Moves food to stomach

3) Epiglottis function

Prevents food from entering airway

4) Stomach function

Uses acid and enzymes for digestion

5) Small intestine function

Main site of digestion and absorption

6) Large intestine function

Absorbs water and produces vitamins

Peristalsis

Wave like (smooth muscle) contractions that move food

Mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of food

Chemical digestion

Enzymes break down food

Tooth shape and diet

Sharp teeth for meat flat teeth for plants

Importance of gut specialization

Allows efficient digestion and absorption

Stomach protection

Mucus lining prevents damage from acid

Small intestine adaptation

Villi and microvilli increase surface area

Large intestine adaptation

Bacteria produces vitamins

Osmoregulator

Controls internal water balance

Osmoconformer

Internal environment matches surroundings

Glomerulus function

Filters blood

Bowmans capsule function

Collects filtrate

Proximal tubule function

Reabsorbs nutrients

Loop of Henle function

Creates concentration gradient

Distal tubule function

Adjusts ions

Collecting duct function

Concentrates urine

Adaptation of concentrated urine

Conserves water in terrestrial animals

Ammonia characteristics

Very toxic requires lots of water

Urea characteristics

Less toxic requires moderate water

Uric acid characteristics

Least toxic requires minimal water

Innate immunity

Present at birth fast and nonspecific

Adaptive immunity

Specific response with memory

Examples of innate immunity

Saliva tears mucus lysozyme macrophages

Histamine function

Causes inflammation and increases blood flow

Phagocytic cells definition

Cells that eat pathogens

Phagocytic cell examples

Macrophages neutrophils dendritic cells

B cell function

Produce antibodies

Antibody diversity

Produced by gene rearrangement

Immunological memory

Memory cells allow faster response

Helper T cell function

Activate other immune cells

Cytotoxic T cell function

Kill infected cells