Studied by 22 people
Petrarch
credited as the “father of the renaissance”
rediscovered classical texts and popularized them
demonstrated appreciation of classical world
Lorenzo Valla
began modern historical-analysis
proved the Donation of Constantine was false because of its Latin
Desidirus Erasmus
northern renaissance
cleared up errors in the Old Testament
wrote criticisms of the Church and what could improve
Niccolo Machiavelli
diplomat
“The Prince”
introduces the idea of “realpolitik” and “the ends justify the means”
this idea will be practiced by later leaders
Ferdinand & Isabella
Spanish new monarchs
beginning of centralized power w/ Reconquista and Inquisition
control over religion - “convert or leave”
Henry VIII
starter of English Reformation
broke away from Catholic Church b/c Pope couldn’t annul his marriage
also centralized power w/ Supremacy Act of 1534
Martin Luther
accredited w/ starting the Reformation
95 theses nailed to Wittenburg Church in 1517
motivated to reform because of the sale of indulgences in the Church
translated Bible to vernacular
challenged by traditional Catholic authority for heresy
John Calvin
established Genevan Consistory in Switzerland
established a theocracy: the government was essentially regulated/ran by religious authorities
Elizabeth I
Moderate Protestantism
Church of England/Anglican Church established
Book of Common Prayer
Outward conformity - go to Church, but believe what you want
Brough religious stability
a good example of:
religious toleration
a woman in power during this period
Henry IV
wins War of the Three Henries as a Protestant
converts to Catholicism to satisfy French population which was mostly Catholic
but passes Edict of Nantes to allow some toleration of Protestants
Charles V
Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain
outlawed Luther and his followers
would then go on to fight wars to stop Protestantism
ex. Schmalkaldic Wars
ultimately failed
Philip II
Son of Charles V, rules Spain
goal of reuniting Europe under Catholicism
ex. Spanish Armada sent to England, defeated
ultimately fails
Prince Henry the Navigator
Portuguese
established navigation schools to encourage navigation
an example of monarchical support of exploration
Ferdinand Magellan
Portuguese
he died early, but his crew completed the first full circumnavigation of the Earth
essentially, they sailed across the entire globe
Christopher Columbus
Spanish
4 voyages start in 1492
thought he could go westward to reach Asia
landed on Caribbean Islands instead
first contact w/ New World
settlements in Hispaniola
Cardinal Richelieu
beginnings of absolutism
implemented policies to centralize power:
restricting Protestant rights
use of intendants
Louis XIV
greatest/model absolutist
Palace of Versailles: project power while also keeping nobles busy
Edict of Fontainebleau: revoked Edict of Nantes to control religion
taxation. . .
however, costly wars led to:
decline of respect
bankruptcy/poor economy of France at his death
Oliver Cromwell
rule after execution of Charles I
example of a non-monarch government; steps towards constitutionalism
Mary & William
sign English Bill of Rights
have shared sovereignty w/ parliament
example of a great power moving towards constitutionalism
inspires other nations
Peter the Great
westernization of Russian nobles
built capital of St. Petersburg
regulated religious affairs
taxed nobles but allowed serfdom
example of absolutism in the east
Aristotle
ancient Greek philosopher
incorrect views on:
geocentric view of earth
believed there were only 4 elements
an example of a challenged authority
Galen
ancient Greek physician
incorrect views on:
4 substances/humors
exampled of challenged authority
Nicolaus Copernicus
suggested heliocentric view of universe
was declared heresy in 1616 by Church
Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler
Brahe observed orbits
Kepler interpreted
confirmed elliptical orbits
discovered orbit time is relative to distance from the sun
an example of observation to learn in this era
Galileo Galilei
1st European to observe w/ a telescope
observed moon to confirm universe is made of material substance
disproved Aristotle
punished for heresy
Isaac Newton
invented Calculus
Principia published 1687
evidence of universal gravity
leads to modern physics
challenged Aristotle’s views on motion
scientific method - ideas from both Bacon and Descartes
Andreas Vesalius
experimentation
dissected humans
anatomical drawings
example of challenging Galen
Galen dissected animals and had incorrect views
William Harvey
observations and dissections on living humans
disproves Galen’s theory that there were 2 types of blood in the body and circulation started in the liver
Paracelsus
suggested chemical imbalances caused sickness, not 4 humors
contributions to modern medicine
challenges Galen
Margaret Cavendish
participated in scientific debates
published works criticizing some empiricist views
example of female participation during Scientific Revolution
Rene Descartes
father of modern rationalism
deductive reasoningw
Cartesian-dualism: separation of mind and body
John Locke
Two Treatises of Government 1690
introduces natural rights of life, liberty, and property
introduces social contract
inspires the American Revolution
Adam Smith
Wealth of Nations 1776
most influential Enlightenment book
introduces:
capitalism
laissez-faire
“invisible hand” - supply and demand of the market
Denis Diderot
accredited w/ editing the Encyclopedia
had to flee France to publish, sought refuge in Russia
Mary Wollstonecraft
originator of modern feminism
A Vindication of the Rights of Women
advocated for female equality
Rousseau
French
The Social Contract
Popular Sovereignty: power of the government comes from consent of the people
Voltaire
French
anti-clerical/secular; advocate for toleration
influenced by Britain’s constitutional monarchy
introduces “Enlightened Absolutism/Despotism”
wrote a multitude of writings criticizing traditional institutions of authority as well as nobles
would get him exiled from France
Frederick II the Great
Prussian
application of enlightenment ideas to government
ex. judicial reform, slight freedom of speech
often had discussions w/ Voltaire to stretch thinking
Catherine the Great
Russian
allowed Diderot to finish Encyclopedia in Russia
government reform:
elimination of torture
decrease of capital punishment
religious toleration
Maria Theresa
Austrian
treated provinces equally
taxed both nobles and clergy
Joseph II
Austrian
attempted to abolish serfdom
religious toleration
Marie Antoinette
symbol of what is wrong with the French monarchy
overspending for lavish lifestyle
Louis XVI
king at time of French Revolution
indecisive and weak ruler
doesn’t improved economic conditions
further loss of respect for French monarchy
National Assembly
established and disbanded in 1789
provisional government to write a new constitution
response to domination of clergy and nobles in Estates-General
Maximillian Robespierre
leader of Committee of Public Safety during French Reign of Terror
bloody dictatorship
arrested/executed thousands
end in 1794 after the people execute him
Napoleon
fully came to power w/ 1799 coup d’etat
policies:
censorship
control of church w/ a concordat/treaty
his ego would be his downfall
passed Napoleonic Code
standardized laws to replace medieval and revolutionary laws
remnants of this legislature would remain
Klemens von Metternich
traditional conservative in reaction to Napoleon
hosted the Congress of Vienna
largely responsible for Balance of Power thinking in this era
Louis-Napoleone (Napoleon III)
elected French president, conservative at first
practiced Realpolitik
shifted to democratic law - expansion of franchise (voting rights)
French stability for ~20 years
reconstruction of Paris
expansion of education to women
unsuccessful domestic policies
interference in Mexico (attempt to establish Austrian emperor as ruler) backfired
defeated in Franco-Prussian war
Otto von Bismarck
credited w/ uniting Germany + increasing power
practiced realpolitik
“blood and iron” - military strength
passed social welfare legislation
diplomacy to avoid 2-front wards
was Chancellor while Wilhelm I was Kaiser
Queen Victoria I
improvements for English working class
national confidence in Britain’s power
reorganization of English culture (ex. what’s socially acceptable)
long reign - example of successful ruling woman
Karl Marx
wrote The Communist Manifesto w/ Friedrich Engels
introduction of communism - appealing to working class but….
ideas were utopian; presented but no plans on how to actually implement communism
Louis Pasteur
hypothesized the Germ Theory in 1800s
invention of pasteurization to kill bacteria
Joseph Lister
improvements in health in the 1800s
sterilization of office, wounds, hospitals
Marie Curie
advancements in chemistry in the 1800s
discovery of radiation w/ her husband
Charles Darwin
Theory of evolution
ideas of natural selection and evolution would be applied to social problems
creates “social darwinism” and acts as justification for new imperialism
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